■ 


SCHOOL  ORGANISATION 


SCHOOL  ORGANISATION 


BY 


S.  E.  BRAY,  M.A. 


RESPONDENT   OF   TRINITY   COLLEGE,   DUBLIN  ;   BARRISTER-AT-LAW 

INSPECTOR   OF   SCHOOLS  TO   THE   LONDON   COUNTY   COUNCIL  ;   AUTHOR   OF 

"BRITANNIA'S    REALM,"    ETC. 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 
Sir  JAMES  YOXALL 


Second  Impression  {Second  Edition) 


BALTIMORE,    MD.,    U.S.A. 

WARWICK    &    YORK,    INC. 
Wilveteity  tutorial  fl>ress  XD. 

ENGLAND 


• 


PREFACE. 


The  first  edition  of  this  book,  intended  primarily  for 
students  in  training,  showed  many  signs  of  the  haste  with 
which  it-  was  written ;  but  notwithstanding  its  defects,  the 
work  has  been  appreciated  beyond  the  author's  expecta- 
tions. The  present  edition,  re-arranged,  and  to  a  large 
extent  re-written,  in  no  way  departs  from  the  purpose  of 
the  first  edition.  Its  empirical  character  still  remains  the 
chief  feature ;  but  roanv  additions  have  been  made  and 
revisions  carried  out  in  order  to  bring  the  work  into  line 
with  the  most  recent  official  requirements,  and  into  closer 
touch  with  the  more  advanced  educational  thought. 

The  changes  of  the  past  few  years  show  in  a  marked 
degree,  the  great  progress  made  in  all  that  concerns  the 
care  and  education  of  the  child.  From  empiricism,  from 
psychological  investigation  and  medical  inspection,  is  grad- 
ually emerging  a  more  exact  and  comprehensive  science 
that  must  ultimately  bring  within  its  scope  every  phase  of 
educational  work  and  fix  the  principles  that  should  govern 
each  series  of  steps  in  the  educative  process :  and  this  up- 
ward tendency  and  the  advancement  alreadv  made  have  not 
been  lost  sight  of  in  the  present  work.  Indeed  the  author 
has  not  been  content  to  specify  only  what  must  be  done ; 
he  has  sought  to  point  out  also  what  should  and  can  be 
done,  in  the  way  of  organisation,  and  within  the  limits  of 
the  elementary  school,  to  further  the  development  of  the 

333$5G 


VI  PREFACE. 

whole  child.  He  hopes,  therefore,  that  this  new  edition 
will  not  only  meet  the  wants  of  the  student  in  training, 
but  will  also  prove  of  real  assistance  to  the  practical 
teacher. 

The  writer  is  especially  indebted  to  Lyster's  School 
Hygiene,  published  in  the  same  series  as  the  present 
volume,  for  much  valuable  information  on  school  premises 
and  general  hygienic  conditions  of  school  life. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  and  simplicity,  the  teacher  in 
these  pages  has  generally  been  referred  to  as  a  "  Master." 
The  book  is,  however,  intended  to  apply  to  the  conditions 
of  teaching  and  organisation  in  all  departments  of  the 
school.  The  word  "  Mistress "  may  therefore  be  read 
everywhere  for  "  Master  "  or  "  Teacher  "  except  where  the 
contrary  is  implied  or  distinctly  specified. 

The  Author  is  conscious  of  the  honour  of  being  asso- 
ciated, in  this  work,  with  Sir  James  Yoxall,  M.P.,  who  has 
contributed  the  Introduction,  and  who  is  eminently  fitted 
to  deal  with  such  a  wide  and  important  question  as  the 
position  of  the  Elementary  School  in  a  national  system  of 
education. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  Plage   of  the  Elementary    School    in   a 

National  System  of  Education xv 

Introductory  Chapter         1 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Premises,  Fittings,  Furniture,  etc.,  in  relation 
to  Organisation  and  School  Hygiene. 

The  Premises  in  General  7-33 


Educational  Effect  of  Good  Premises 

General  Plan  of  Building  for  an  Ordinary  Graded  School 

The  Small  School  

The  Hall 

The  Class-rooms — 

Number  and  Distribution  ... 

Movable  Partitions ... 

Curtains,  etc. 

The  Extra  Room 

Rooms    for    Art    Instruction    and    Practical    Work 
generally    ... 

Infant  Rooms 

Accommodation  of  Rooms... 
Premises  for  Special  Purposes — 

The  Higher  Elementary  School   ... 

The  Central  School 

Rooms  for  Cookery,  Manual  Instruction,  etc. 
Day  Schools  or  Classes  for  Defective  Children 
The  Playground  ... 

vii 


7 

9 

15 

16 

17 

18 
18 
19 

20 
23 
24 

25 
26 
26 
29 
30 


VI11 


CONTENTS. 


School  Hygiene        

Site  and  Foundation 

Floors  and  Roofs ... 

Internal  Walls 

Entrances,  Staircases,  and  Corridors  . . 

Cloak-rooms  and  Lavatories 

Lighting,  Natural  and  Artificial 

Heating  and  Ventilation 

Sanitary  Arrangements... 

Desks — 

Board  of  Education  Rules 
Dangers  from  Improper  Desks 
"  Sheffield  System  " 

General  Conditions  for  Good  Desking 

Infant  Furniture .. . 

Wall  Boards,  etc. 

Blackboards,  Cupboards,  etc.   ... 

The  Teachers'  Room 

Oiled  Floors  


PAGE 

33-61 

.  33 

..  35 

..  37 

..  38 

..  39 

. .  40 

..  43 

..  50 

..  51 

..  52 

52 

..  53 

..  57 

..  58 

...  59 

...  60 

...  00 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Class. 

The  Class  as  a  Working  Unit 

Size  of  Classes  and  Variations 

Large  Classes    ... 

The  One-Teacher  or  Ungraded  School 

Time-tables 

The  Class  as  Unit  in  a  Department 

Promotion 

Age  and  Classification — 

Backward  Scholars  :  Promotion 

The  Ungraded  Class 

Promotion  on  a  One-subject  Basis 
The  Highest  Class 
Specialisation  ... 

Departmental  Teaching  ... 


02 
04 
71 

74 
81 
83 
86 

92 
93 
94 
94 
95 
100 


CONTEXTS.  IX 

PAOE 

Ungraded  Room  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...   103 

The  Class-room  104 

The  School  Hall  106 

The  Class  Teacher  from  the  point  of  view  of  Organisation       ...   107 
Preparation  of  Lessons  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...   108 

Correction  of  Class  and  Home  Work  ...         .  .         .  .  . .   109 

Athletics:  Playground  ...         ...  Ill 

Class  Examinations     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...   112 

Class  Discipline  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...   114 

Class  Registration       ...         ...  ...         ...  .121 

Class  Excursions  ...  ...         ...   121 

Conferences      ...         ...  ...         ...  ...  122 

Sex  of  the  Class  Teacher       123 


CHAPTER    III. 
The  School  and  its  Divisions. 

School  Departments  ... 

Necessity  for  Differentiating  between  Infancy  and  Childhood 

The  Pubescent  Period  .  

oize  of  Departments  ... 

The  Infant  School      ...  

Ecoles  Maternelles    ... 

Classes  Enfantines     ... 

Ecoles  Gardiennes  or  Jardins  d'Enfants  ... 

Kinderhorte,  etc. 

Infant  Schools  in  this  Country       

The  Kindergarten 
Inter-departmental  Promotion 
Co-education  v.  Separation  ... 
Pros,  and  Cons. 
Principles  of  Staffing 

Staff  Difficulties  in  Schools  of  Old  Type 

Special  Classes 

Problems  and  Experiments... 

Some  Merits  and  Defects  of  the  Class  System    ... 

The  Bata via  System  .. . 


126 
129 

130 
130 
137 
138 
139 
139 
140 
141 
144 
145 
148 
149 
151 
155 
157 
158 
159 
162 


X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    IV. 


Organisation  in  Various  Types  of  Schools.     The 
Work  of  the  Staff.      Some  Time-tables. 

PAGE 

The  Ordinary  Graded  School         166 

General  Plan  of  Procedure  followed  by  the  Head  Teacher  in 
keeping  a  small  Combined  School  going  ...         ...         ...     172 

...     173 


The  Younger  Infants 


Elementary  Schools  serving  a  Special  Purpose 
Partial  Exemption  Schools  and  Scholars 
Industrial  Schools 
Vacation  Schools 

"  Special  Schools  "        

The  Blind  and  Deaf      

Open-air  Schools 

Higher  Grade  Schools  ... 

The  Higher  Elementary  School 

"  Central  Schools  "        

The  Contributory  School 
The  Continuation  School 

Day  Classes 

Evening  Schools    ... 

Some  Means  of  linking  the  Day  with  the 
School 

Some  Continuation  Schools  abroad 


The  Ordinary  Elementary  Day  School 

Teachers  giving  Partial  Time  or  Visiting  Teachers 

Pupil  Teachers  ... 

Student  Teachers 

Absences  of  Teachers    . . . 

Supply  Teachers 

The  Head  Teacher 

School  Examinations    ... 


178-216 
178 
179 
180 
181 
186 
188 
191 
192 
195 
204 
205 
205 
209 


Evening 


211 

214 


216-232 
216 
216 
219 
221 
222 
223 
228 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


CHAPTER    V. 


Time-tables. 

PAGE 

General  Remarks       233 

Time-table  of  Infant  School  239 

Analysis  of  Time-table  (Infant  School) 240,241 

Time-table  of   a  Combined   Girls'  and   Infants'    Department 

(Non-Provided  School)     facing 

Analysis' of  Time-table  (Girls' School)      

Summary  of  Time-table  (Girls'  School)     ... 
Analysis  of  Time-table  (Boys' School) 
Time-table  (Boys'  School),  in  a  very  Poor  District 
Time-table    of   a   most    interesting    Boys'   School  in   an    ex- 
tremely Poor  District       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     246 

Time-table  (Mixed  Department) — Non-Provided  School  facing  246 
Time-table  of  a  Senior  Mixed  Department  of  Ten  Classes  ...  247 
Time-table  of  a  Berlin  School  of  Eisrht  Classes  ...         ...         ...     248 


242 
242 
243 
244 
245 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Discipline. 

Introductory  Remarks 

Attendance 

Rewards 

Badges 

Banners,  Flags,  School  Ladder,  etc. 

Ethics  of  Rewards     ... 

Punishments  ... 

Forms  of  Punishment — 

Censure    ... 

Deprivations 

Impositions 

Corporal  Punishment  and  its  Ethics... 
The  Law  of  Corporal  Punishment 

Expulsion 


251 
258 
260 
261 
262 
265 
269 

273 

274 
275 
275 

282 
284 


Xll                                                       CONTENTS. 

PAOE 

The  Punishment  Book 

...     284 

Parents'  and  Managerial  Aid 

...     284 

Other  Aids  to  Discipline 

... 

...     286 

Reports  to  Parents 

... 

...     287 

Open  Sessions     ... 

...     288 

Home  Lessons    ... 

...     289 

Meals  for  Children 

...     290 

The  School  Library 

...     291 

League  of  Mercy,  Guild  of 

Courtesy 

...     293 

School  Lists 

...     294 

Office  Routine    ... 

...     294 

The  Hall  Address 

...                  ...                  ... 

...     295 

The  Honour  and  Merit  Board 

...     295 

The  School  Journey 

...     296 

The  School  Motto 

...                  ...                  ... 

...     299 

Fire  Drill             

...     299 

The  May  Queen  Festival 

...     299 

Clubs        

...     300 

The  School  Journal 

...     301 

The  Tooth-brush  Club  ... 

...     302 

The  Flower  Show 

...     302 

Visits  of  Nurses 

...     303 

Medical  Inspection 

...     303 

The  "  School  City"  Method  of  Government 

...     304 

General  Remarks 

• • ■                  •••                  .  •  •                 • 

...     304 

CHAPTER  VII. 

School  Records  and   Registration. 
General  Remarks 

Registers      

General  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Registers 

Special  Rules  for  Admission  Register 

Rules  as  to  the  Provision  of  Attendance  Registers 

Registers  for  Special  Classes  ... 

Special  Rules  for  Attendance  Registers       


...  306 

309-319 
309 
310 
312 
312 
313 


CONTENTS. 


Xlll 


Registers,  continued — 

Rules  for  the  Use  of  the  Partial  Exemption  Register 
Rules  as  to  the  Register  of  Summaries 
Verification  of  the  Registers  ... 

Records         

Weekly  Records 

Quarterly  Records 

Yearly  Records  ... 

Bye-law  Returns 

Records  of  School  Progress     ... 

The  Child's  Book  

P.  T.  and  S.T.  Records 

Medical  Inspection  and  Records 

Ophthalmic  Records     

Aural  Records    ... 

Defectives'  Records 

Thermometric  Records 

Board  of  Education  Regulations  re  School  Boards 

School  Conference  Records 

The  Three  Years  


PAGE 

..  316 
..  317 
..     318 

319-331 
319 
320 
321 
321 
322 
323 
324 
324 
327 
327 
328 
328 
328 
330 
330 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


The    School  in  relation   to   Local   Administration. 


Need  of  Exceptional  Treatment  of  Children  in  Two  Direc- 
tions— The  Talented  Scholar  ;  the  Backward  Scholar 
The  American  Ladder 
Home  Administration 
Elementary  Education 
Higher  Education 
Reservation  of  Places 
Scholarships    ... 
Children's  Care  Committees 
Consultative  Committees 


332 
335 
338 
339 
343 
346 
348 
351 
356 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


Combinations     of     Schools     for     Purposes     other    than    Co 

ordination   ... 
Interchange  of  Letters 
Relation  of  Schools  to  Centres 
Nature  Study,  Gardening,  Drawing,  etc 
Circulation  of  Books  and  Pictures 
A  School's  Secondary  Function     . . . 

Index  


PAGE 

Soi 
360 
362 
362 
364 
365 

367 


THE    PLACE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOL    IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM 

OF    EDUCATION. 

BY 

Sir  James  Yoxall. 


I. 

What  in  a  rational  scheme  of  national  Education  is  the 
due  place  and  scope  of  the  elementary  school  ?  No  official 
answer  to  that  question  has  ever  been  given  in  England. 
A  whole  volume  of  the  "  Special  Reports  "  has  been 
devoted  to  "  Preparatory  Schools  for  boys  :  their  place  in 
English  public  Education"  -,1  but  where  is  the  companion 
treatise,  on  the  place  and  scope  of  English  elementary 
schools  ?  It  is  still  to  seek :  we  possess  no  constructive 
plan,  no  reasoned  thesis  to  go  by ;  in  this  vastly  important 
department  of  education  we  go  haphazard,  blundering 
along.  Who  in  this  country  has  from  a  seat  of  authority 
discussed  philosophically  or  scientifically  determined  the 
true  role  and  function  of  the  Voluntary  and  Council 
Schools  ?  What  President  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
or  what  Secretary?  What  Matthew  Arnold  among  the 
Inspectors?  Too  much  "cumbered  with  serving,"  they 
have  found  no  time  to  lay  down  the  ground-plan  on 
which  the  typical  elementary  school  should  be  built. 

1  Special  Reports  on  Educational  Subjects,  Vol.  6  :  Board  of 
Education,  2s.  3|d. 

xv 


XVI  THE    PLACE    OP    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

The  first  "  Special  Report"  to  the  Board  of  Education 
ever  published  had  for  title  "  Public  Elementary  Educa- 
tion in  England  and  Wales,  1870-1895  "  ;  but  confessedly 
it  aimed  "  at  showing  in  a  statistical  form  the  progress 
which  was  made  towards  a  general  provision  of  elementary 
education  in  England  and  Wales  during  the  first  quarter 
of  a  century  from  the  passing  of  the  Elementary  Education 
Act,  1870  "  :  enumeration  and  quantities,  not  quality  or 
fitness,  were  the  theme. 

That  is  largely  true  of  Education  Blue-books  also. 
Many  pages  of  statistics,  chronicles,  and  records  of  Acts 
and  facts  concerning  elementary  education  in  Tasmania, 
Ireland,  Malta,  and  so  forth,  can  be  found  in  the  long  row 
of  volumes  of  "  Special  Reports,"  but  they  do  not  help 
much  in  the  search  for  a  reasoned  basis  and  criterion  for 
an  English  public  elementary  school.  In  this  regard,  at 
least,  the  department  of  Special  Inquiries  and  Reports  has 
been  an  unintelligent  Intelligence  Department.  So  in- 
veterate is  our  English  habit  of  dealing  only  or  mainly 
with  facts,  the  concrete,  and  the  obvious,  that  even  the 
Special  Reports  from  abroad  do  not  enlighten  us  as  to 
what  the  spirit,  essence,  and  conception  of  an  elementary 
school  in  Holland,  Sweden,  Austria,  or  France  are  sup- 
posed to  be. 

Prefatory  Memoranda  and  Introductions  appear  as 
frontispieces  to  school  Codes,  but,  admirable  as  they  are 
so  far  as  they  go,  they  are  didactic  and  exhorting,  not 
philosophical ;  they  hint,  suggest,  or  command  what  a 
public  elementary  school  may  do,  and  how  it  may  be  done, 
but  they  do  not  answer  the  question  "  What  in  a  national 
scheme  of  Education  is  the  place  of  the  Elementary 
School ?  " 

The  Introduction  to  the  Day  School  Code  appears  to 
open  hopefully   in    that   respect.     "  The   purpose  of  the 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XV11 

Public  Elementary  School  is" — it  begins; — but  it  con- 
tinues, "  to  form  and  strengthen  the  character  and  to 
develop  the  intelligence  of  the  children  entrusted  to  it." 
Yes,  yes,  but  what  children  should  be  entrusted  to  it,  is 
what  one  wants  to  know ;  and  there  is  no  answer  except 
the  implied,  the  English  answer,  "The  children  who  are." 
Another  aim  of  the  public  elementary  school  is  "to  make 
the  best  use  of  the  school  years  available,"  this  Intro- 
duction goes  on.  Yes,  yes,  again, — but  what  school  years  ? 
Which,  and  how  many,  ought  the  school  years  of  an 
elementary  school  child  to  be?  "The  Education  Acts 
answer  that "  would  be  the  characteristic,  English,  official 
reply.  Yet  Education  Acts  ought  to  be  shaped  by,  and 
not  to  shape,  the  English  idea  of  an  elementary  school. 

In  the  "  Suggestions  for  the  consideration  of  Teachers 
and  others  concerned  in  the  work  of  Public  Elementary 
Schools "  it  is  said  that  "  the  work  which  the  Nation 
expects  its  Public  Elementary  Schools  to  do  has  been 
stated  with  general  acceptance  in  the  Introduction  to  the 
Code" — the  very  document  which  has  just  been  criticised  ! 
And  further,  "  that  the  regulations  of  the  Code  are 
designed  in  the  first  instance  to  serve  the  necessary  pur- 
pose of  setting  forth  the  conditions  which  an  elementary 
school  must  satisfy  in  order  to  obtain  the  Parliamentary 
grants  available  for  Public  Elementary  Schools."  Was 
ever  anything  more  blank  and  wooden  ? 

We  are  searching  round  a  "  vicious  circle  "  when  con- 
sulting official  documents  to  discover  what  is  the  true 
place  and  scope  of  the  elementary  school.  The  writers  of 
these  documents  appear  to  take  the  elementary  school  for 
granted.  "  We  know  what  it  is,  you  know  what  it  is  " 
they  seem  to  say  to  the  reader.  "  What  need  for  words 
about  what  it  ought  to  be  or  might  be  ?  "  So  far  as  I  can 
discover,  nobody  has  ever  attempted  to  discuss  the  "  idea  " 
s.  o.  2 


XV111  THE    PLACE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

of  a  public  elementary  school  in  the  way  a  great  writer 
discussed  "The  Idea  of  an  University."  Yet  perhaps  the 
public  elementary  school  ought  to  be  made  the  University 
College  of  the  young  and  poor. 

We  have  gone  for  four  and  twenty  years  without  any 
inquiry  into  this  matter  by  a  Royal  Commission :  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Secondary  Education  in  England 
did  not  profess  to  enter  that  field.  Indeed,  I  might  say 
we  have  gone  for  fifty  years,  because  the  "  Commissioners 
appointed  to  inquire  into  the  Elementary  Education  Acts, 
England  and  Wales,"  who  reported  in  1886,  considered 
everything  except  the  idea,  the  place,  the  scope,  the  aim, 
the  proper  purposes  and  dimensions  of  the  work  of  a 
public  elementary  school.  There  was  only  one  section  of 
their  Report  which  touched  upon  this  subject :  it  was 
headed  "  Elementary  Schools  and  Higher  Education,"  an 
illusory  title ;  the  sub-heads  indicate  what  really  was 
discussed.  They  are  these :  Varieties  in  local  circum- 
stances— Grouping  of  small  schools — Grading  of  schools. 

The  Commissioners  reported  that  "  In  theory,  every 
elementary  school  is  looked  upon  by  the  Education  Depart- 
ment as  conforming  more  or  less  to  one  well-defined  type." 
But  which  type  ?  Did  the  Commissioners  ascertain,  con- 
sider, criticise,  and  intelligently  deal  with  that  "  well- 
defined  type"?  They  did  nothing  of  the  sort.  This  is 
how  they  described  the  "  well-defined  type" : — "If  it  is  not 
an  infant  school,  then  it  is  one  in  which,  as  far  as  the 
Department  is  concerned,  the  children  may  be  presented  for 
examination  in  the  fullest  possible  curriculum  of  the  Code." 
Could  anything  be  more  circular  in  reasoning,  more  chaffy 
in  grain  ?  The  real  question  surely  was,  "  Is  '  the  fullest 
possible  curriculum '  too  full,  or  too  meagre, — is  it  a  curri- 
culum suited  to  what  should  be  the  scope  and  purpose  of 
a  public  elementary  school  ?  " 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OP    EDUCATION.  XIX 

But,  leaving  that  alone,  and  the  elementary  school  where 
it  was  in  1886 — still  in  the  Egyptian  thraldom  of  "  Pay- 
ment by  results," — the  Commissioners  went  on  to  maunder 
amiably  about  Higher  Elementary  schools,  exhibitions 
and  scholarships  to  Secondary  schools,  and  "  candidates 
ignorant  of  Latin."  Nebulous  at  the  top  and  infirm  at 
the  base,  that  Report  soon  sank  into  neglect  and  nothing- 
ness ;  it  died  early,  unlamented.  Out  of  its  ashes  I 
dig  the  following  flinty  piece  of  stupidity  about  educa- 
tion : — "  The  instruction  to  be  paid  for  out  of  the  rates 
and  taxes  should  be  fixed  by  the  Legislature.  Until  this 
is  done  the  limits  of  primary  and  secondary  education 
cannot  be  defined."  Of  course  they  can ;  but  who  is 
certain  that  they  ought  to  be,  or  that  "  overlapping,"  as  it 
used  to  be  called  in  Parliamentary  debates,  is  not  to  some 
degree  inevitable,  and  even  desirable  ? 

Narrow-eyed,  unintelligent,  dense,  the  official  volumes 
stand  in  rank  before  us  like  a  row  of  cloddish  children  in 
a  class-room.  We  ask  them  for  educational  bread  and 
they  give  us  a  stone.  Need  I  further  prove  that  when  a 
mere  unofficial  observer  and  amateur  educationalist  like 
myself  is  asked  to  write,  in  this  book,  about  the  place  of 
the  elementary  schools  in  a  national  system  of  Education, 
though  he  may  have  the  whole  range  of  the  House  of 
Commons  library  and  official  records  at  his  disposal,  he 
searches  the  shelves  of  authority  in  vain  ? 

II. 

Or  almost  in  vain.  In  Volume  IV.  of  the  "  Special 
Reports"  one  gets  some  illumination,  from  abroad.  That 
volume  contains  the  text  and  translation  of  a  paper  by 
Professor  Rein  on  "  Tendencies  in  the  educational  systems 
of  Germany,"  and  affords  some  glimpse  of  the  "  idea"  of 


XX       THE  PLACE  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

an  elementary  school.  Dr.  Eein  goes  to  theory ;  he  gets 
away  from  the  actual,  unsatisfactory  facts  towards  a 
partly  realised  ideal.  "  Our  schools,"  he  writes,  "  have 
been  rightly  called  centres  of  spiritual  nourishment. 
Among  them  the  primary  school  takes  the  most  important 
place,  since  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  nation  gain  their 
spiritual  food  therefrom." 

So  that  at  last  we  find  it  stated,  indirectly,  in  an 
English  official  publication,  that  the  place  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  is  the  most  important  place  in  a  national 
system  of  education.  Upon  that  basal  statement  one 
could  found  a  theory,  and  call  for  an  edifice  of  practice. 
That  is  what  Professor  Rein  goes  on  to  do  (I  amend  the 
English  wording  here  and  there)  :  "  We  must  therefore 
insist  that  the  elementary  school  shall  be  well  appointed 
and  formed  on  an  appropriate  model.  It  must  be  so  created 
as  to  promote  social  well-being.  Even  to-day  the  primary 
school  is,  in  many  ways,  regarded  as  only  a  sort  of  school, 
merely  for  the  poor,  just  good  enough  for  imparting  a 
necessary  minimum  of  knowledge  and  ability,  to  the  chil- 
dren of  the  masses." 

But  "  we  must  break  once  and  for  all  with  this  inhumane 
and  non-Christian  conception  '  Dr.  Rein  goes  on.  "  We 
must  demand  to  have  one  and  the  same  primary  school 
for  all  children,  of  every  social  class.  Let  it  form  a 
common  foundation,  and  be  the  broad  support  of  our 
whole  educational  system,  giving  living  expression  to  the 
idea  of  unity  among  all  the  members  of  our  nation. 
Schools,  at  any  rate,  are  not  called  on  to  encourage  class 
distinctions,  and  intensify  such  divisions.  Like  the 
Church,  the  first  duty  of  the  school  is  to  try  to  affirm  our 
common  humanity,  to  act  as  a  reconciler,  to  check  the 
tendency  towards  divisions,  and  to  proclaim  the  idea  of 
national  unity  aloud.     For  these  reasons  we   demand   a 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XXI 

common,  general,  primary  school.     The   preparatory  de- 
partments attached  to  secondary  schools  must  be  abolished." 

These  be  "  brave  'orts  "  to  utter,  even  in  the  land  of 
Stein  and  Humboldt;  but  Professor  Rein  went  on  to 
declare  that  "  I  can  count  on  complete  agreement  with 
these  views  in  Germany.  The  Prussian  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation is  a  warm  supporter  of  the  idea  of  a  common 
primary  school,  the  whole  body  of  German  elementary 
school  teachers  have  inscribed  this  demand  upon  their 
banners  for  the  last  ten  years  " — 1887  to  1897 — "  and  the 
common  primary  school  is  already  a  reality  in  Bavaria." 

That,  no  doubt,  is  why  the  elementary  schools  which  I 
have  seen  at  Munich  are  such  splendid  monuments  of 
communal  provision  and  general  educational  efficiency ; 
but  we  are  dealing  with  England  here.  So  that  next  door 
to  these  exalted  quotations  from  Dr.  Rein  I  must  needs 
place  Professor  Sadler's  reluctant  judgment,  expressed  in 
the  volume  of  Special  Reports  on  Preparatory  Schools. 
At  page  83,  dealing  with  "  the  place  of  the  Preparatory 
School  for  boys  in  Secondary  Education  in  England,"  he 
tells  us  that  "  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  degree  in  which 
social  distinctions  might  be  lessened  or  removed  by  re- 
quiring, at  least  for  the  first  stage  of  their  education,  the 
children  of  all  classes  in  society  to  attend  the  public 
elementary  schools.  It  is  unlikely  that  such  a  require- 
ment could  be  enforced  unless  public  sentiment  were 
overwhelmingly  in  favour  of  it." 

Professor  Sadler  evidently  regrets  -that  public  senti- 
ment is  not  inclined  that  way,  and  he  thinks  that  few  will 
doubt  that  the  preparatory  boarding-school  system  "  tends, 
far  more  than  any  day-school  system  can  ever  tend,  to 
keep  together  in  rather  isolated  communities  boys  drawn 
from  the  wealthier  kind  of  homes,"  and  so  in  some  measure 
to  deprive  such  lads  of  the  experience  of  mixing  habitually, 


XXU  THE    TliAOE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

on  equal  terms,  arid  measuring  themselves  intellectually, 
with  boys  who  "  have  felt  the  spur  of  poverty."  But,  he 
adds,  "  it  would  be  misleading  to  imply  that  fashion  and 
social  prejudice  are  the  chief  causes  of  the  present  practice. 
Careful  sifting  of  comrades,  and  protection  against  indis- 
criminate influences,  especially  during  childhood,  are 
regarded  by  English  parents  generally  as  an  advantage 
for  their  sons,  as  well  as  for  their  daughters." 

That  discreetly  but  exactly  states  the  English  position 
in  this  respect.  And  English  parents  "of  the  wealthier 
kind  "  will  defend  that  position  successfully  for  many  a 
year  to  come.  The  Board  of  Education  regulations  there- 
fore recognise  differences  between  "elementary,"  "primary," 
and  "preparatory  "  schools  and  classes.  Scotland  used  to 
be  a  democratic  land  in  this  matter ;  it  was  long  a  Scottish 
boast  that  the  son  of  the  laird  sat  upon  the  same  bench  as 
the  son  of  the  herdsman,  in  a  school  that  was  neither 
"  elementary  '  nor  even  "  primary  '  alone,  and  "  Public 
elementary  "  is  a  prefix  to  a  school  name  unknown  in 
North  Britain  yet.  But  the  last  decade  has  witnessed  a 
tendency  towards  separatism  even  there,  and  the  Lords  of 
the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on  Education  in 
Scotland  determined  early  in  the  year  1910  to  use  the 
following  distinctive  nomenclature,  which  bears  on  the 
subject  of  this  chapter  : — 

Primary  School. — A  school,  or  a  department  of  a  school, 
giving  an  education  based  entirely  upon  English  to  pupils 
who  are,  as  a  rule,  below  the  age  of  fourteen.  A  primary 
school  may  contain  individual  pupils  or  small  sections  of 
scholars  who  are  being  instructed  on  the  lines  of  an  inter- 
mediate school. 

Intermediate  School. — A  school  providing  at  least  a 
three  years'  course  of  instruction  in  languages,  mathe- 
matics, science,  and  such  other  subjects  as  may  from  time 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XX111 

to  time  be  deemed  suitable  for  pupils  who,  on  entering, 
have  reached  the  stage  of  attainment  in  elementary 
subjects  which  enables  them  to  pass  the  qualifying  ex- 
amination. 

Secondary  School. — A  school  providing  at  least  a  five 
years'  course  of  instruction  as  aforesaid  beyond  the 
qualifying  examination  stage. 

So  that  the  particular  "  place  "  of  an  elementary  school 
in  a  system  of  national  education,  for  which  Professor 
Rein  began  to  strive  successfully  in  Germany  some  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  is  a  "  lost  cause "  in  Great  Britain ;  if 
indeed  it  was  ever  a  "  cause '  at  all.  Alone,  or  almost 
alone  in  this  country,  the  National  Union  of  Teachers 
champions  it,  as  the  German  Teachers'  Union  does  in 
Prussia,  Baden,  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemburg.  It  is  a 
"  counsel  of  perfection  "  too  high  for  British  reach. 

III. 

Our  search  through  official  documents,  bearing  the 
imprimatur  of  the  Board  of  Education,  has  discovered  this 
much,  directly  or  indirectly,  therefore  : — 

(a)  Educationally  the  elementary  school  ought  to  be, 

but  for  social  reasons  in  England  and  Wales 
cannot  be,  the  primary  school  for  all  children 
in  its  area. 

(b)  "Elementary"  schools,  "primary'1   schools,  and 

"preparatory"  schools  and  classes  cannot  be 
treated  on  similar  lines. 

(c)  The  elementary  school  is  a  primary  school  with  a 

particular  field,  and  must  receive  a  special 
treatment,  as  the  "  preparatory "  function  of 
an  elementary  school  has  reference,  in  the 
main,  to  a  period  when  school-days  have 
ended. 


XXIV  THE    PLACE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

For  the  rest  we  are  driven  back  upon  "  common  know- 
ledge," and  ourselves.  And  still,  at  the  end  of  this  already 
lengthy  preamble,  the  question  poses  itself:  "  What,  in  a 
rational  system  of  national  Education,  is  the  '  idea,'  place, 
and  scope  of  an  elementary  school  ?  " 

The  temptation  to  a  writer  is  to  consider  that  query  in  the 
abstract,  and  to  build  an  educational  chateau  en  Espagne. 
But  not  in  Spain,  nor,  so  far  as  I  know,  elsewhere,  except 
in  some  parts  of  Germany,  can  the  ideal  elementary 
school  be  realised ;  and  what  is  to  the  purpose  here  is  the 
"  place  "of  an  elementary  school  in  England  and  Wales. 
To  the  degree  in  which  ex- scholars  of  elementary  schools 
in  Wales  enter  Welsh  secondary  schools — a  higher  propor- 
tion than 'is  the  case  in  England — the  problem  is  not  the 
same  in  England  as  in  Wales.  But  the  difference  is  slight, 
after  all,  and  for  practical  purposes  we  may  disregard  it. 

So  we  may  say  that  in  South  Britain, 

(1)  The  elementary  school  is,  and  is  still  to  be,  the 

institution  for  educating  children  who  come 
from  other  than  "  the  wealthier  kind  of 
homes  "  ; 

(2)  The  elementary  school  is  to  deal  with  children  of 

ages  between  three  and  fifteen  years  ; 

(3)  Only  a  very  small  percentage  of  them  will  proceed 

to  secondary,  or  any  day  continuative  schools ; 

(4)  For  years  to  come  only  a  small  part  of  the  total 

of  such  children  will  proceed  to  evening  schools 
and  technological  institutions  ; 

(5)  the  products   of   the   elementary   school  will  be 

almost  wholly  ranked — at  first,  even  in  the  case 
of  exceptions — among  "  the  working-classes  "  ; 

(6)  It  is  the  elementary  school  or  none,  therefore,  for 

the  commonalty  as  a  whole. 
These    are    the    conditions    and    circumstances    which 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XXV 

official  documents  take  for  granted ;  so  much  for  granted, 
indeed,  that  even  to  mention  matters  so  obvious  did  not 
seem  to  be  necessary.  Parliament,  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, and  Local  Education  Authorities  take  them  for 
granted.  So  let  us  too  take  them  for  granted,  since  we 
must.  But  let  us  also  endeavour  to  perceive  what  "  idea  " 
of  a  public  elementary  school  arises  from  these  data,  like 
an  emanation  and  an  aura.  What  should  be  the  model 
of  a  public  elementary  school  in  these  conditions  ?  To 
what  criteria  may  it  reasonably  be  expected  to  conform  ? 

IV. 

From  the  circumstances,  limitations,  and  other  con- 
siderations already  mentioned,  it  follows,  I  think,  that 
the  place,  scope,  and  function  of  an  elementary  school 
consist  in — 

(a)  Giving  to  the  great  majority   of    its    pupils  all 

the  direct  and  specific  scholastic  teaching  and 
training  which  they  will  ever  receive; 

(b)  Preparing    a    fraction    of    its    pupils   to    enter 

secondary   or    other    continuative    schools    by 
day; 

(c)  Enabling  a  part  of  its  pupils  to  proceed  to  even- 

ing schools  and  classes : 

(d)  And,  of  course,  also,  scholastically  preparing  all 

its  pupils,  either  solely  as   in    (a),  or  partly 
as  in   (b)   and  (c),  for  entrance  into  the  full 
responsibilities,    opportunities,    and    duties   of 
industrial,    political,    moral,    intellectual,    and 
spiritual  life. 
Therefore  Professor  Eein  inevitably  claimed  chief  im- 
portance  for   the   primary   school ;    its  great   "  place "   is 
allotted  to  it  by  the  very  circumstances  and  prejudices 


XXvi  THE    PLACE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

which  seem  to  limit  and  minify  it.  Its  function  is  to 
school  the  masses ;  as  the  man  who  did  most  to  hinder 
the  popular  education  which  he  controlled  is  said  to  have 
said,  "We  must  educate  our  masters."  A  new  meaning 
and  definition  is  gradually  being  given  to  the  phrase  "  the 
governing  classes " :  les  classes  dirigeantes  are  ceasing  to 
consist  of  the  few,  they  are  becoming  the  multitudinous 
classes  in  the  nation.  With  this  political  change,  the  kind 
of  school  which  educated  a  Canning  and  a  Gladstone  is 
ceasing  to  be  the  most  imoortant  kind  of  school,  considered 
nationally ;  elementary  schools  bear  such  responsibilities 
towards  the  millions  that  the  responsibilities  of  Public 
Schools  to  the  upper  myriad  seem,  by  comparison,  small. 
Compulsory  education  of  the  people  has  been  decreed — 
"  longo  post  tempore  venit " ;  the  people  are  ceasing  to  be 
the  has  peuple,  and  their  education  can  no  longer  be  treated 
de  limit  en  has. 

It  is  not  mere  enthusiasm — it  is  mere  justice — to  claim 
that  the  elementary  school  ought  now  to  be  magnified  and 
ennobled  therefore.  Not  paltry,  not  starven,  not  inefficient 
should  be  the  only  schools  which  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
will  ever  know.  Moreover,  the  elementary  school  ought 
not  to  be  merely  and  coldly  efficient ;  it  should  be  honoured 
and  inspiring.  The  best  that  has  been  thought  and  done 
about  other  schools  should  be  applied  to  the  elementary 
school,  so  far  as  may  be.  Emotions  and  inspirations  such 
as  centre  around  the  names  cut  in  the  wainscot  at  Eton,  or 
on  the  School  Memorials  at  Rugby,  ought  to  be,  and 
might  be,  evoked  by  past  or  present  membership  of  a  long- 
established  elementary  school.  The  school-motto  and  the 
school-song  ought  to  be  features  there  too  :  "  Forty 
years  on  "  need  not  exclusively  appeal  to  Harrovians. 
The  esprit  de  corps  might  be  the  same  in  essence,  if  not 
in  degree. 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XXVll 

I  am  not  sure  that  it  might  not  be  something  higher, 
indeed.  The  boys  of  a  Public  School  are  not  so  early  to 
become  breadwinners,  and  in  that  sense  men,  as  are  those 
who  quit  an  elementary  school  at  thirteen  or  fourteen ;  the 
pathos,  and  the  stern  duty,  of  the  working-class  lads' 
lives  in  the  immediate  future  ought  to  be  present  to 
the  mind  at  every  school-meeting,  an  inspiration  to  the 
teachers  in  their  work,  and  a  special  bond  of  sympathy 
between  the  children.  A  particular  kind  of  "  solidarity '; 
is  therefore  possible  in  the  elementary  school. 

Y. 

Two  small  books,  in  fawn-coloured  binding  just  touched 
with  gold,  stand  on  the  "  shelf  of  favourites  "  in  one  of  my 
bookcases ;  they  are  Edward  Thring  as  Teacher  and  Poet 
and  Uppingham  School  Songs  and  Borth  Lyrics.  Every 
teacher  ought  to  be  a  poet  in  his  way ;  inarticulate  in 
verse,  may-be,  but  imaginative  and  perceptive  in  his  soul. 
Reverence  and  compassion  are  due  to  be  taught,  and 
Turing's  favourite  motto,  next  to  his  "  ova  et  labora"  was 
Wordsworth's  well-known  line,  "  We  live  by  admiration, 
hope,  and  love."  Hapless  the  school  where  the  teachers  do 
not  comprehend  that  "  admiration,  hope,  and  love '  are 
the  great  psychical  levers.  "  Light  up  the  magic  lantern  of 
common  words  and  things,"  Thring  counselled.  "  Work 
from  the  inside  outwards.  ...  A  teacher  is  one  who 
sows  seeds  of  life  and  fosters  them.  Have  done  with 
dry  bones  !  "  These  adjurations  do  not  apply  to  Public 
Schools  alone.     And  again, — 

' '  Each  morn  they  meet,  the  young,  young  feet ; 
They  lightly  come  and  go, 
A  changeful  stream,  that  still  doth  seem 
The  same,  and  still  doth  flow. 


XXV111        THE    PLACE    OF    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

The  stream  shall  run  while  shines  the  sun, 

And  still  the  buttressed  stone 
Shall  hear  the  beat  of  young,  young  feet, 

And  count  them  all  its  own, " 

Need  this,  and  all  that  it  stands  for — the  historic  con- 
tinuity of  school  life,  its  elders  and  the  youngsters,  the 
"  old  boys,"  the  genius  loci,  the  fraternal  spirit  of  the 
place,  the  carrying  on  the  torch — have  reference  to  Upping- 
hams  alone  ?  Schools  do  not  live  by  grants  and  rate-aid 
only, — wealth  cannot  make  a  noble  school,  or  poverty  in  a 
slum  alone  make  a  school  ignoble.  In  many  an  elementary 
school  this  Uppingham  spirit  lives :  it  ought  to  dwell  in 
all.  Nothing  of  what  is  best  in  the  Public  School  spirit 
need  be  foreign  to  its  humbler  congeners.  If  the  chief 
virtue  of  a  Public  School  is  the  preparation  it  gives  for 
life,  all  the  more  need  for  that  spirit  in  an  elementary 
school,  because  no  University  years  follow  upon  its  pre- 
paration. And  I  say  again,  that  in  the  national  comity 
we  ought  to  magnify,  ennoble,  and  glorify  the  place  and 
function  of  the  public  elementary  school. 

VI. 

Since  the  elementary  school  cannot  be  "  preparatory  "  in 
the  technical  sense  of  the  word,  except  for  a  few  of  its 
children  yearly,  it  should  be  self- complete.  Its  curriculum, 
aims,  and  methods  ought  not  to  be  subordinated  to  those 
of  a  Higher  Elementary  or  a  Secondary  school.  A  peril  of 
the  scholarship  system  lies  in  its  modifying  the  elemen- 
tary schools  unduly.  An  elementary  school  should  be  an 
independent  entity,  not  parasitic,  not  ancillary  even,  but 
living  with  a  life  of  its  own  in  a  place  of  its  own  ;  it  should 
be  a  complete  and  integral  educative  entity,  so  far  as  it 
goes  or  can  go.     It  should  therefore  be  considered  and 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XXIX 

treated  as  a  self-contained  institution,  not  correlated  with 
any  "  finishing  school."  For  it  is  in  itself  the  only  "  finish- 
ing school "  which  eight  out  of  every  ten  of  its  children 
will  ever  know. 

Trade  Union  Congresses  and  Labour  Parties  stand  alone 
in  demanding  that  Secondary  Education  shall  be  provided 
for  every  child,  and  I  do  not  see  any  near  prospect  of  that 
requirement  becoming  effective.  It  is  therefore  more  prac- 
tical and  timely  to  consider  what  can  be  done  for  the 
millions  of  children  who  will  never  enter  a  Secondary 
school.  This  consideration  profoundly  affects  the  ele- 
mentary school's  "place"  and  function.  Part  of  that 
"  place  "  and  function  is,  no  doubt,  the  preparation  of  a 
few  children  annually  for  examinations  which  frank  them 
into  Intermediate  or  Secondary  places  of  ii/structiou,  but 
these  will  be  youngsters  seldom  more  than  twelve  years 
old.  The  great  work  and  principal  "place"  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  must  consist  in  educating  the  others. 

So  that  curricula  and  tests  for  Junior  or  Minor  Scholar- 
ships ought  not  to  be  permitted  to  condition  the  teaching 
of  upper  classes  in  an  elementary  school ;  those  upper 
classes  should  not  be  improperly  affected  by  circumstances 
and  plans  which  govern  schools  to  which  the  children  in 
those  classes  will  never  go.  Part  of  the  ennobling  and 
magnifying  which  I  advocate  lies  in  the  treatment  of  the 
upper  classes  as  a  top  and  crown  to  the  whole  school.  If 
the  school  is  to  be  an  entity,  a  complete  and  integral 
whole,  it  must  not  be  reft  of  the  classes  which  give, 
or  should  give,  the  tone  to  the  whole  school.  The 
hero-worship  of  Smith  minor  for  Brown  major  is  a 
considerable  asset  in  the  influence  of  a  Public  School ;  it 
should  have  its  counterpart  in  the  humbler  institution. 
An  elementary  school  ought  always  to  include  a  full 
"  upper  form." 


XXX  THE    PLACE    OP    THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL 

I  think  it  follows,  therefore,  that,  for  these  reasons  ex- 
pressly—I  go  no  further  than  these — the  Higher  Elemen- 
tary or  higher- standard  schools  are  not  desirable  appendages 
to  an  elementary  school  system;  an  elementary  school 
cannot  be  organised  to  the  best  purpose  if  it  is  truncated, 
at  the  Fifth  or  other  class  level.  And,  similarly,  the 
creation  of  Senior  departments — Mixed,  Boys,  or  Girls — is 
to  be  deprecated  :  they  rob  the  whole  institution  of  unity  ; 
an  elementary  school  cannot  beneficially  be  cleft  in  twain. 
And  there  should  be  a  continuity  and  organic  connection — 
a  sequence  and  prolongation  of  personality,  so  to  speak — 
between  the  Infant  Department  and  the  other  sections ; 
children  should  feel  themselves  members  of  a  School,  not 
of  a  department  merely.  A  school  should  throb  with  the 
same  life  throughout ;  for  out  of  this  corporate  life  arises, 
like  an  aura  and  emanation,  the  "  idea  "  of  the  elementary 
school. 

VII. 

That  "idea"  has  now  become  more  clear  to  the  reader 
of  these  pages  than  official  Keports  and  documents  had 
made  it,  I  hope;  at  last  we  apprehend,  in  outline,  what  at 
their  best  are  the  true  place,  scope,  function,  duty,  privi- 
lege, and  glory  of  a  public  elementary  school.  But  there 
is  still  one  important  respect  to  consider, — the  invitation 
to  study  in  years  when  school-days  are  done. 

It  is  good  for  an  elementary  school  to  induce  in  its 
pupils  a  liking  for  handiwork,  house-work,  readiness  and 
neatness  with  tools  or  utensils — a  knack  for  drawing, 
measuring,  sewing,  planning  out,  constructing,  contriving 
and  arranging — a  love  for  gardening  and  Nature-lore — a 
delight  in  music,  pictures,  recitations,  folk-song— a  pleasure 
in  bodily  exercises,  drill,  gymnastics,  journeyings  afoot, 
and  organised  games  for  adults— a  power  of  intelli gent  and 


IN    A    NATIONAL    SYSTEM    OF    EDUCATION.  XXXI 

accurate  observation,  and  so  on ;  these,  and  the  lessons  in 
temperance,  modesty,  the  causes  and  preservation  of  health, 
civics,  morals,  and  the  Bible  will  prepare  the  children  for 
after  life.  But  more  useful  than  all  (because  it  will  help 
in  all)  is  the  inducing  of  what  the  Introduction  to  the 
Day  School  Code  calls  "a  taste  for  good  reading  and 
thoughtful  study,"  so  that  the  ex-pupils  may  increase  and 
deepen  their  knowledge  during  their  after-years. 

The  flourishing  of  evening  continuation  schools,  techno- 
logical  classes,  schools  of  art,  Polytechnics,  and  so  forth 
largely  depends  upon  that.  So  does  the  flourishing  of 
literature  rather  than  the  "  yellow  press,"  of  the  concert- 
hall  rather  than  the  music-hall,  of  the  Free  Library  and 
Art  Gallery  more  than  the  public-house.  So  does,  in  every 
respect  and  particular,  the  flourishing  of  the  nation  as  a 
whole.  The  place  and  function  of  an  elementary  school 
particularly  include  this  duty  and  responsibility  to  the 
village,  the  county,  the  borough,  the  State. 

Thinking  of  this  after- study,  how  it  can  be  induced,  and 
with  it  the  flourishing  of  the  things  just  mentioned,  I  am 
conscious  of  two  currents  of  thought — one  towards  ampli- 
fication of  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school,  and  the 
other  towards  simplification  of  it.  To  amplify  the  course 
of  study  seems,  at  first  sight,  the  way  to  ennoble  and 
magnify  the  school,  and  make  it  fertile  of  after-fruit.  But 
second  thoughts  demonstrate  the  contrary.  Wisdom  tends 
to  simplicity — it  is  only  mere  knowledge  which  makes  for 
complexity.  "The  deeper  the  content  the  simpler  the 
form  "  is  almost  a  maxim  in  the  arts  ;  it  should  be,  I  think, 
a  maxim  in  teaching  also.  In  respect  of  curriculum,  the 
function  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  induce  a  delighted 
use  of  the  mental  tools,  more  than  to  teach  the  subjects 
upon  which  the  mental  tools  are  to  be  used.  Awaken 
curiosity,  train  observation,  and  induce  a  love  of  reading  in 


XXX11  THE    ELEMENTARY    SCHOOL. 

children,  and  we  have  put  them  in  the  true  way  to  be  self- 
educators  all  their  lives. 

What  is  called  an  "  ambitious  "  curriculum  is  therefore 
not  in  place  in  an  elementary  school ;  the  function  there, 
in  relation  to  after-life,  is  to  persuade  to  learn,  not  to 
instruct  to  know.  And  what  is  called  a  "  practical  "  curri- 
culum is  equally  misplaced.  "  Truly  educated  "  is  not  the 
same  as  "  highly  educated ''  ;  it  is  something  far  better. 
There  are  many  vehicles  of  education,  and  "  all  roads  lead 
to  Rome,"  but  one  need  not  try  to  travel  by  them  all. 
Education  consists  in  spirit  and  essence,  not  in  lexicons, 
encyclopaedias,  tools,  or  calculating-machines.  "  Simplify 
and  intensify  the  curriculum  "  is,  I  think,  the  true  maxim 
for  an  elementary  school. 

Wordsworth,  the  teachers'  poet,  himself  knew  the 

"  sleepless  nights  he  passed  in  sounding  on 
Through  words  and  things,  a  dim  and  perilous  way"  ; 

but  it  was  when  knowledge  had  been  assimilated  and 
digested  into  wisdom  that  he  could  write  of 

"one  in  whom  persuasion  and  belief 
Had  ripened  into  faith,  and  faith  become 
A  passionate  intuition." 

Into  a  place  and  function  which  may  inspire,  aid,  and  guide 
towards  that  we  must  enncble  the  elementary  school. 


SCHOOL   ORGANISATION. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


"The  problem  of  education  is  the  eternal  problem  of  human 
nature." — Mazzin  i. 

"Let  us  grant  that,  as  fur  every  other  art,  there  is  also  a 
technique  for  Pedagogics  which  can  be  learned  only  in  a  practical 
way." — Waitz. 

To  establish  clearly  the  meaning  of  the  term  Organisa- 
tion, it  is  desirable  to  go  back  etymologically  to  the 
original  Greek : — the  tool  or  instrument L  with  which 
work"  is  performed.  Applied  biologically,  organ  desig- 
nates a  part  performing  a  given  physiological  function. 
Again,  as  the  life  of  an  individual  is,  in  a  physiological 
sense,  the  sum  of  its  functions,  so  the  aggregate  of  its 
organs  is  called  an  organism.  Finally,  an  artificial  or- 
ganism, in  which  a  variety  of  members  and  instruments 
are  disposed  in  order  to  secure  a  desired  end,  is  termed 
an  organisation.  As  often  happens,  the  same  abstract  term 
signifies  both  an  act  and  an  effect,  or  an  act  and  a  state — 
so  in  this  case  organisation  covers  both  the  arranging  and 
the  arrangement.  The  application  of  this  word  pedagogi- 
cally  is  a  wide  one.     The  co-ordination  of  the  schools  of  a 

1  opyauof  (Latin,  orgdnum)  —  tool  or  instrument. 

2  ipyov  =  work. 

S.O.  3 


Z  .SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

county,  town,  or  district;  the  division  of  a  school  into 
various  departments ;  the  working  plans  laid  down  by  a 
head  teacher  for  the  effective  teaching  and  proper  govern- 
ance of  his  scholars — all  these  come  legitimately  within 
the  meaning  of  "  school  organisation." 

It  is,  however,  the  last-named  phase  of  organisation 
that  will  be  principally  considered  in  these  pages — the 
foundations  upon  which  instruction  and  discipline  may 
and  do  rest. 

The  working  plans  must  necessarily  be  influenced  by  the 
character  of  the  building,  especially  by  the  number,  size, 
and  distribution  of  the  class-rooms ;  by  the  number  and 
quality  of  the  staff ;  by  the  age,  sex,  and  attainments  of 
the  scholars ;  by  the  subjects  of  instruction  and  the 
methods  by  which  they  are  taught ;  by  the  character  of 
the  discipline ;  and,  lastly,  by  the  specific  aim  which  the 
organiser  has  in  view. 

The  nucleus  of  school  organisation  is  sound  classifica- 
tion. The  fitting  of  the  teacher  to  the  class,  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  class  to  the  room,  the  adaptation  of  the 
subjects  and  methods  to  the  scholars,  the  proper  distribu- 
tion of  time,  etc.,  are  the  additions  that  assist  in  making  a 
coherent  and  unified  whole. 

The  true  basis  for  educational  method  is  the  individual ; 
but  its  application  is  almost  invariably  collective — that  is, 
adapted  as  far  as  practicable  to  groups  of  scholars  ap- 
proximately possessing  equal  attainments,  but  necessarily 
varying  in  ability  and  character. 

It  is  manifest  that  the  best  organisation  is  that  which, 
ceteris  paribus,  will  produce  the  maximum  of  educational 
effect  in  a  given  time.  The  essential  condition  precedent 
to  sound  organisation  is  clear  and  distinct  educational 
aim.  The  end  of  education  is  not  the  theme  of  this 
book,  but  so  far  as  it  affects  organisation  and  the  choice  of 


INTKODUCTOI4Y. 


studies  some  remarks  are  permissible ;  especially  as  the 
training  of  the  child,  under  the  teacher's  guidance,  is 
largely  a  question  of  self -organisation,  of  self-adjustment 
in  the  course  of  the  various  stages  of  development.  No 
person  can  be  said  to  be  educated  unless  his  experiences 
have  been  organised  or  carefully  noted,  sifted,  and  adjusted 
for  future  use. 

All  true  knowledge  implies  organisation  of  experience. 
Practice  makes  for  perfection.  If  the  effect  of  the  third 
attempt  to  do  a  thing  is  compared  with  the  first,  it  will  be 
seen  under  ordinary  conditions  what  a  great  advance  has 
been  made :  and  this  advance  is  really  due  to  an  organisa- 
tion of  the  experiences  of  the  individual  during  the  first 
and  second  attempts.  The  mental  operation  involved  in 
this  kind  of  organisation  is  implied  by  Herbart  in  his 
"circles  of  thought,"  and  when  expressed  in  action  leads 
to  the  formation  of  habits — the  groundwork  of  character. 
"  All  action  springs  out  of  the  circle  of  thought." 

It  is  considered  that  the  dominant  characteristic  of 
educational  aim  should  be  ethical ;  that  it  should  point  to 
moral  training,  not  by  mere  words,  but  through  the  heart 
and  intellect,  through  example,  through  forces  that  are 
part  of  the  energies  of  a  child's  nature  and  enter  into  the 
very  essence  of  its  soul.  In  the  words  of  Euskin,  let  the 
children  get  their  "  breastplate  of  truth  first  aud  every 
earthly  stone  will  shine  in  it."  A  fine  character  will 
satisfy  all  the  theories  as  to  the  ends  of  life  :  a  mere 
intellectual  prodigy  will  satisfy  none. 

The  intellectual  side  must,  of  course,  have  its  due  share 
of  attention.  Its  development  naturally  occupies  the  major 
portion  of  the  time  devoted  to  school  life :  for  it  is  through 
the  proper  training  of  the  intellect  and  will  power  that 
moral  height  and  stability  are  attained.  Mental  alertness 
must   be   encouraged,  reasoning  power  must  be  trained, 


4  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  an  intelligent  curiosity  developed.  It  is  well,  too,  for 
the  theory  of  to-day  to  become  the  practice  of  to-morrow. 
"  The  value  of  knowledge  culminates  in  its  use."1 

Physical  culture  must  also  have  its  claims  recognised. 
Rousseau's  ideal  on  this  point  is  a  beautiful  one,  viz.  that 
all  parts  of  the  human  body,  when  in  motion,  should 
harmonise  with  each  other,  like  the  sounds  of  a  musical 
chord. 

As  the  school  is  State-aided  and  guided  by  State  regu- 
lations, and  as,  too,  it  is  a  unit  in  State  organisation,  so  it 
must  be  in  touch  with  public  sentiment  and  be  limited  by 
the  public  purse.  Hence  a  multitude  of  forces  converge 
upon  the  school,  and  streams  of  influence  surround  it.  If, 
therefore,  the  teacher,  bound,  as  he  must  often  find  himself, 
by  invisible  chains,  is  not  always  able  to  organise  on  what 
he  considers  to  be  the  best  lines,  he  ought  not  to  allow 
his  educational  faith  to  be  weakened  or  his  ideals  to  lose 
their  guiding  power ;  for  there  is  still  an  immense  field  for 
the  play  of  personality  and  the  operation  of  initiative,  both 
within  and  beyond  the  school  premises.  No  school  is 
bounded  by  its  four  walls.  Discipline  in  its  best  form 
Calls  for  teachers  who  are  students  of  the  endless  problem 
of  human  nature,  particularly  of  child  nature,  and  bids 
those  associated  with  the  training  of  infants  especially  to 
remember  that  young  children  spend  most  of  their  lives  in 
fairyland. 

As  a  nation  finds  it  necessary,  from  time  to  time,  to 
make  new  laws  and  to  repeal  or  modify  others,  so  it  is 
necessary  for  a  school,  if  it  is  to  preserve  its  health  and 
vitality,  to  be  sometimes  throwing  oft'  or  modifying  old 
practices  and  adding  new  ones.  Change  is  a  law  of  nature. 
Change  must  also,  in  a  modified  sense,  be  part  of  the 
practice  of  the  school.     It  is  impossible  for  any  institution 

1  De  Garmo. 


INTRODUCTORY.  5 


O 


to  thrive  permanently  unless  new  ideas  are  occasionally 
given  play  in  its  constitution.  New  conditions  must  arise 
with  the  advance  of  time.  Stagnation  is  death.  Non 
progredi  est  regredi.  Knowledge  is  "  a  world  whose  margin 
fades  for  ever  and  for  ever  as  we  move."  Conformity  to 
the  law  of  progress  is  imperative. 

Change,  however,  must  not  be  introduced  for  the  sake  of 
change.  When  introduced  it  should  he  like  the  change 
of  an  organic  body,  "not  that  of  a  cloud."  Before  any- 
thing is  discarded  or  anything  added,  mature  consideration 
should  lead  the  way. 

The  assistant  teacher's  interest  in  the  school  ought  not 
to  be  limited  to  his  class.  His  horizon,  theoretically  at 
least,  should  be  as  wide  and  extended  as  that  of  his  chief. 
Everything  that  concerns  the  school  as  a  whole  should 
excite  his  interest  and  bring  his  help  if  desired.  Loyal 
co-operation  with  the  head  teacher  and  devotion  to  his 
scholars  are  the  sum  of  his  duties. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  wise  head  teacher  extends  a 
tactful  consideration  to  each  member  of  the  staff,  and 
remembers  that  all  are  not  to  be  influenced  and  directed 
by  the  same  means.  He  bears  in  mind,  too,  that  it  is 
mainly  through  the  agency  of  the  class  teacher  that  each 
individual  is  reached,  and  the  law  of  the  school  upheld. 

The  empirical  character  of  much  of  the  following  disser- 
tation will  be  manifest.  In  many  respects,  when  dealing 
with  the  social  sciences  (and  in  pedagogy,  perhaps,  no  less 
than  any  other),  experience  is  the  chief  guide.  The  variety 
of  circumstances,  the  variation  of  character  and  the  differ- 
ence of  local  aims,  are  so  great  as  to  render  a  purely 
scientific  treatment  an  impossibility  within  the  limits  of  a 
small  volume.  However,  a  good  school  possesses  the  same 
essential  features  wherever  found.  "  It  always  nourishes 
the  same  interests  ;  it  always  leads  to  thinking  as  well  as 


6  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

observation ;  it  always  points  to  the  beautiful  in  the  world 
and  to  the  sublime  above  it ;  it  always  awakens  sympathetic 
participation  for  domestic  and  civil  weal  and  woe."1 

This  quotation  indicates  the  character  of  the  work  to  be 
accomplished.  It  is  clear  that  a  sound  organised  basis  is 
essential.  Personal  enthusiasm,  an  insight  into  child 
nature,  a  knowledge  of  the  procedure  adopted  by  the 
best  educationists  and  of  the  principles  underlying  this 
procedure  will  probably  be  the  teacher's  most  suitable 
outfit. 

1  Herbart. 


CHAPTER  I. 


"  The  excellence  of  every  art  must  consist  in  the  complete  accom- 
plishment of  its  purpose." 


THE  PREMISES,   FITTINGS,    FURNITURE,    ETC., 

IN   RELATION   TO  ORGANISATION  AND 

SCHOOL  HYGIENE. 

The  Premises  in  General. 

Educational  Effect  of  Good  Premises. — Suitable  rules 
for  the  planning  and  equipment  of  schools  have  been 
drawn  up  by  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  guidance  of 
local  authorities.  These  rules  represent  a  minimum  of 
requirements,  and  apply  to  all  new  buildings  unless  it  is 
made  clear  that  exceptions  should  be  allowed. 

The  educational  effect  of  good  premises  is  undoubted. 
A  simple,  dignified,  and,  if  possible,  artistic  exterior,  sug- 
gestive of  the  purpose  for  which  the  building  exists,  is 
calculated,  apart  from  other  considerations,  to  make  the 
scholars  proud  of  their  connection  with  the  school,  and  to 
exercise  a  constant  and  impressive  influence  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood concerning  the  ideals  of  education. 

A  really  artistic  school  building — and  it  can  be  artistic 
in  simplicity — radiates  its  beauty  day  and  night.  It  is  a 
permanent  expression  of  spiritual  things ;  it  is  sculptured 
stone  and  masonry  embodying  a  great  aim ;  it  is  a  silent 


8  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

power  for  good  to  all  who  look  upon  it,  or  dwell  within  the 
spell  of  its  presence.  In  poor  and  squalid  neighbourhoods 
especially  such  a  building  exercises  a  continuously  whole- 
some influence.  One  might  properly  say  to  the  local  au- 
thority, "  Costly  thy  buildings  as  thy  purse  can  buy,  but 
not  expressed  in  fancy." 

It  is  an  architectural  canon  that  the  exterior  of  a  build- 
ing should  suggest  the  character  of  the  interior ;  and  the 
interior  should  of  course  be  planned  for,  and  adapted  to, 
the  work  it  is  proposed  to  do  therein.  First  and  foremost 
the  building  must  be  planned  in  conformity  with  hygienic 
laws.  The  child's  extreme  susceptibility  to  injury  from 
a  noxious  environment  demands  that  this  shall  be  the 
primary  consideration.  The  building  should  be  so  situated 
that  the  sun  can  reach  all  its  class-rooms  without  filtering 
through  foliage  or  being  obstructed  by  house-tops,  that  the 
air  may  be  able  freely  to  play  round  it,  and  that  the  natural 
drainage  can  be  effected  without  saturating  the  sub-soil 
with  moisture.  It  is  well,  too,  to  have  the  building  remote 
from  factories  and  offensive  odours,  and  standing  back  some 
distance  from  the  main  arteries  of  traffic,  so  that  the  work- 
may  not  be  disturbed  by  external  sounds. 

There  should  be  a  commodious  playground,  evenly  warmed 
and  well  lighted  rooms,  and  a  thorough  system  of  ventila- 
tion. Other  considerations  are  the  number  of  entrances 
and  exits,  a  sufficiency  of  cloak-room  accommodation,  the 
number  and  distribution  of  class-rooms,  facilities  for 
adequate  supervision  and  for  the  speedy  passage  of  the 
pupils  from  one  part  of  the  building  to  another. 

It  is  evident  that  the  interior  of  a  building  will,  if  suit- 
ably planned,  give  material  aid  to  the  work  of  organisation, 
and  assist  in  many  ways  to  produce  the  best  educational 
results.  Pupils  cannot  be  expected  to  work  and  develop 
in  accord  with  their  natural  tendencies  and  abilities  unless 


PREMISES. 


good  light,  fresh  air,  change  of  position  and  of  exercise, 
daily  and  hourly  companion  their  studies.  Without  a 
healthy  environment  and  facilities  for  free  development,, 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  intellectual  forces  to  wane  and 
for  the  moral  power  to  deteriorate. 

General  Plan  of  Building  for  an  Ordinary  Graded 
School. — From  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  accomplished 
and  the  number  of  children  that  must  be  duly  classified 
and  instructed,  it  is  clearly  desirable  that  a  building 
proposed  as  a  school-house  should  be  specially  designed 
for  that  purpose  and  that  purpose  only.  Too  often  in  the 
past  educational  claims  have  been  subordinated  to  other 
considerations.  It  is  undesirable,  however,  to  have  a  rigidly 
uniform  standard  in  school  buildings,  since  education  should 
be  progressive,  and  changes  in  method  and  procedure 
demand  the  construction  and  alteration  of  buildings  in 
conformity  with  those  changes.  The  character  of  the 
building  too  must,  to  some  extent,  be  determined  by  the 
number  of  children  it  is  intended  to  accommodate  and  by 
the  special  aim  involved  in  their  training.  As  there  is 
no  finality  in  method,  so  there  can  be  no  finality  in  the 
standard  of  school  buildings. 

The  best  type  of  building,  so  far  as  the  interior  is  con- 
cerned, is  one  with  a  hall  having  the  class-rooms  grouped 
near  it,  each  room  also  having  its  independent  entrance ; 
and  this  type  is  the  more  advantageous  when  both  hall 
and  class-rooms  are  on  the  ground  floor.  It  is  not  alwavs 
practicable,  where  space  has  to  be  strictly  economised,  to 
prevent  some  class-rooms  from  opening  into  the  hall ;  but 
when  this  can  be  avoided,  it  should,  for  two  reasons : — 
(1)  cross  ventilation  is  desirable,  and  this  cannot  be  secured, 
as  a  rule,  without  using  the  hall  for  purposes  of  that  venti- 
lation ;  and  (2)  the  sounds  proceeding  from  the  hall  when 


10 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


HALL. 

Fig.  1. 


games  and  other  exercises  are  in  progress  there — and  this 
should  be  often — are  likely  to  disturb  the  studies  in  the 
adjoiDing  rooms. 

As  far  as  possible,  the  class-rooms  should  open  into 
corridors  ten  feet  wide,  situated  at  one  end,  or  at  opposite 

ends,  of  the  hall.  This  type  of  build- 
ing is  found  in  New  York,  where 
it  assumes  the  shape  of  the  capital 
letter  H.  In  London  the  ground 
plan  in  recent  buildings  assumes 
the  form  of  a  quadrilateral  figure. 
Most  of  the  class-rooms  open  into 
corridors ;  but  two  rooms  usually 
open  into  the  hall,  and  this  necessi- 
tates the  use  of  the  hall  for  cross  ventilation.  Again,  in 
Fig.  16,  showing  the  plan  of  an  American  school,  the  same 
kind  of  connection  exists  between  class-rooms  and  the 
larger  space  for  general  assembly,  though  in  this  case  some 
pro  vision  is  made  for  good  ventilation  (diagonal  mostly) 
without  necessarily  using  the  hall  for  that  purpose. 

Some  American  educationists  maintain  that  all  school 
buildings  should  be  confined  to  the  ground  floor,  and  that 
the  illumination  of  the  rooms  should  come  from  above, 
as  designed  by  nature,  the  eye  being  naturally  adjusted 
to  such  light.  Through  milk-white  translucent  glass  the 
light  should  be  flooded  into  the  rooms  by  ceiling  areas 
sufficiently  large  and  well  distributed  to  reach  equally 
every  portion  of  the  interior,  without  the  possibility  of 
shadow.1  There  should  be  no  side  windows  for  illumin- 
ating purposes ;   but  on  the  side   opening  into  corridors 

1  "  Skylights  are  objectionable.  They  cannot  be  approved  in 
school-rooms  or  class-rooms.  They  will  only  be  allowed  in  central 
halls  having  ridge  or  apex  ventilation." — Board  of  Education's 
Building  Begiilat ions. 


TYPES    OF    BUILDINGS.  11 

windows  should  be  placed,  overlooking  the  school  garden. 
Thev  further  maintain  that  ventilation  should  be  effected 
through  "  walls  that  breathe,"  as  in  Dr.  Richardson's 
Hygeia.1  It  is  claimed,  under  this  system,  that  ventilation 
difficulties  would  vanish,  and  that  other  great  problems  in 
connection  with  school  buildings  would  be  solved. 

The  best  type  of  building  already  referred  to  is  only 
regarded  as  such  with  certain  qualifications.  Something 
must  depend  on  (1)  the  size  of  the  hall  in  relation  to  the 
number  of  scholars,  (2)  whether  there  are  other  rooms 
besides  the  ordinary  class-rooms  in  which  work  of  an 
essentially  practical  nature  can  be  efficiently  carried  out, 
and  (3)  whether  the  building  is  used  as  a  self-contained 
department. 

A  hall  measuring  40  ft.  by  50  ft.  would  reasonably 
accommodate  500  scholars.2  The  number  of  children  for 
whom  provision  must  be  made  should  generally  be  the 
determining  factor  in  deciding  whether  a  school-house 
shall  have  a  hall  or  not.  The  hall  is  so  useful  an  ad- 
junct to  the  work  of  the  class-room  that,  on  purely  educa- 
tional grounds,  it  must  be  regarded  as  essential  to  every 
school  building,  unless  by  some  mechanical  device  class- 
rooms can  be  converted  into  a  quasi-hall  for  temporary 
purposes,  or  unless  one  of  the  rooms  is  commodious  enough 
to  accommodate  all  the  scholars  of  the  school  at  one  time ; 
but  even  conveniences  like  these  only  confer  one  of  the 
many  benefits  which  a  permanent  and  spacious  assembly- 
room  is  able  to  give  to  the  life  of  a  school. 

1  See  ^4??.  Ideal  School,  by  Frof.  Search,  pp.  88-90. 

2  Halls — not  more  than  4  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  for  each  scholar  is 
recognised.  "About  3£  sq.  ft.  for  each  scholar  will  be  sufficient. " — 
Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations.  "For  large  depart- 
ments containing  from  350  to  600  places,  the  most  suitable  plan  is 
that  of  a  central  hall  with  the  class-rooms  grouped  round  it." — find. 


12  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Iii  many  large  towns  the  cost  of  sites  has  compelled 
local  authorities  to  erect  three- storey  buildings,  the  infants 
occupying  the  ground  floor  and  the  senior  boys  and  girls 
the  floors  above.  But  many  of  these  "  three-deckers  "  have 
a  central  hall  in  connection  with  each  department,  especially 
when  the  accommodation  of  the  whole  school  covers  a 
thousand  or  more  places. 

Medical  testimony  now  strongly  supports  the  construc- 
tion of  buildings  not  more  than  two  storeys  high  ;  for  the 
effort  required  to  ascend  many  flights  of  stairs,  in  march- 
ing order,  four  or  five  times  a  day,  must  severely  tax  the 
energies  of  the  delicate  child.  When  the  site  is  sufficiently 
large  and  open,  and  also  fairly  level,  the  most  economical 
plan  is  that  in  which  all  the  rooms  are  on  the  ground 
floor ;  and  this  arrangement  is  preferable  on  educational 
grounds.  It  is  desirable  that  a  building  for  use  as  a 
public  elementary  school  should  be  on  not  more  than  two 
floors.  "  A  building  on  three  floors  is  open  to  many 
objections,  though  it  may  be  necessary  in  special  circum- 
stances." ] 

Small  schools  will  meet  official  requirements  if  the  plans 
arrange  for  the  class-rooms  to  open  from  a  corridor,  or  if 
there  is  "a  schoolroom  with  one  or  more  class-rooms"; 
one  class-room  is  imperative  "  except  in  special  cases,"  and 
the  schoolroom  in  this  case  should  "  never  be  designed  for 
more  than  100  children." 

In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  note  an  experiment  now 
in  operation  in  Staffordshire,  taking  the  form  of  what  is 
called  "  Pavilion  Schools."  In  these  buildings  there  is 
no  central  hall,  mainly  because  of  ventilation  difficulties. 
All  the  class-rooms  are  on  the  ground  floor,  and  the  one 
hall,  adjoining  the  infants'  school,  serves  for  the  use  of  all 
departments.  The  class-rooms  are  designed  in  pavilion 
1  Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 


GIRLS 


Ground   Plan   of  School. 

Fig.  2. 

The  Staffordshire  Tvte  of  Elementary  School. 
Ground  Plan  showing  Relative  Arrangement  of  the  Three  Departments. 

13 


-"W 


SECTION. 

Fig.  3. 

The  Staffordshire  Type  of  Elementary  School.     Ground  Plan  of  Infants 
School,  with  Drill  and  Play  IIall.     Also  Section  of  Class-room. 

14 


TYPES    OF    BUILDINGS.  15 

form  communicating  directly  with  a  verandah  which,  in 
the  case  of  the  infants'  department,  leads  directly  into  the 
hall  in  question.  The  promoters  of  this  experiment  claim 
that  (1)  the  pavilion  type  of  building  marks  from  the 
hygienic  standpoint  a  distinct  advance  in  school  archi- 
tecture, ample  provision  being  made  for  cross  ventilation 
by  both  hopper  and  sash  openings  of  the  windows,  (2)  it 
costs  one-third  less  than  buildings  of  the  central  hall  type, 
and  (3)  it  is  at  least  as  conducive  to  educational  efficiency.1 

The  first  two  claims  are  justified :  the  third,  however, 
is  extremely  doubtful. 

The  principal  factors  for  consideration  in  determining 
the  type  of  building  for  an  ordinary  elementary  school  are 
(1)  the  number  of  children  to  be  accommodated,  (2)  the 
distribution  of  these  children,  having  regard  to  both  sex 
and  age,  (3)  whether  provision  is  to  be  made  for  children 
under  five  years  of  age  or  not,  (4)  the  correlation  of  the 
work  of  the  school  with  other  institutions  (if  any)  in  the 
locality,  (5)  the  need  for  compactness  to  secure  a  smoothly 
working  organisation  and  supervision,  and  (6)  the  two 
official  limitations,2  viz.  («.)  each  department  must  have  its 
own  head  teacher,  and  (b)  no  department  must  contain 
more  than  600  places. 

The  Small  School. — There  are  cases  in  which  a  single 
school-room  or  small  hall  becomes  a  necessity.  In  many 
sparsely  populated  districts  there  are  village  schools  with 
twenty  to  fifty  pupils  representing  probably  almost  as 
many  grades  of  attainments  as  are  to  be  found  in  much 
larger  urban  districts.  Small  schools  like  these  are 
generally  organised  and  taught  by  one  certificated  teacher. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  practical  necessity  of  the  situation  to  have 

1  See  Lyster's  School  Hygiene. 

2  Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 


16  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

all  the  pupils  ill  one  room,  so  that  while  the  teacher  is 
giving  oral  instruction  to  one  section  he  may  have  the 
remainder  of  the  scholars  under  supervision.  In  cases  of 
this  kind  a  separate  class-room  would  be  next  to  useless 
unless  it  accommodated  the  whole  of  the  scholars.  It 
would  then  be  useful  for  purposes  of  practical  work,  or  of 
change  and  fresh  air.  A  single-roomed  school  should  not 
exceed  600  square  feet  in  floor  space.1 

A  convenient  form  of  building  where  two  or  three 
teachers  (including  the  head)  are  on  the  staff  is  one  with 
a  corridor  15  or  16  feet  wide,  the  class-rooms,  cloak-room, 
and  lavatory  opening  into  it.  Such  a  corridor,  if  the  floor 
is  wood-blocked,  serves  for  physical  exercises  in  inclement 
weather  and  many  other  purposes  for  which  a  hall  is 
generally  used. 

The  Hall. — The  hall  is  common  ground  for  all  the 
classes.  If  used  as  an  ordinary  class-room,  permanently 
or  temporarily,  such  use  throws  a  great  burden  on  the 
teachers,  subtracts  from  the  efficiency  of  the  work,  and 
seriously  interferes  with  the  purposes  for  which  a  hall  is 
primarily  intended.  The  hall  should,  of  course,  be  suffici- 
ently large  to  accommodate  all  the  children  in  the  depart- 
ment of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  be  as  well  warmed, 
lighted,  and  ventilated  as  the  other  parts  of  the  building. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  a  hall  has  to  serve  for  the 
joint  use  of  two  or  more  departments.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation raise  no  objection  to  this  provided  it  is  reasonably 
accessible  to  all  the  scholars.  Sometimes  this  joint  use 
causes  much  inconvenience  to  the  department  the  class- 
rooms of  which  open  directly  into  the  hall.  Besides  the 
general  advantages  that  a  hall  confers,  it  is  particularly 
useful  for  physical  training  in  the  winter  months,  and  at 

1  See  Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 


CLASS-ROOMS.  17 

all  other  periods  of  the  year  when  open  air  space  is  not 
conveniently  available.  The  hall  mast  not,  as  a  rule,  be 
included  in  the  accommodation,  except  as  a  temporary 
measure,  and  then  only  by  special  sanction  of  the  Board 
of  Education. 

The  Class-rooms. — The  number  of  class-rooms  must 
be  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the  accommodation  of 
the  department.  Generally  one  room  for  every  fifty 
scholars  is  regarded  as  a  fairly  satisfactory  arrangement.1 
No  class-room  should  accommodate  less  than  thirty  pupils 
on  the  ten  square  feet  basis.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion Regulations,  which  have  to  be  framed  to  meet  every 
variety  of  circumstance,  limit  the  size  of  a  class-room  to 
one  accommodating  sixty  children,  "  but  in  special  cases 
somewhat  larger  rooms  may  be  approved."  It  is  not 
always  desirable  to  have  all  the  rooms  of  the  same  size, 
since  the  lower  classes  are  generally  the  largest  and  the 
highest  class  is  often  very  large  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  and  small  towards  its  close. 

In  a  department  accommodating  352  children  a  suit- 
able distribution  would  be  found  in  eight  class-rooms 
with  the  following  accommodations — 40,  40,  40,  40,  48,  48, 
48, 48  ;  or,  better  still,  an  accommodation  of  368  might  well 
be  represented  by  nine  rooms — 2  (36),  5  (40),  2  (48).  A 
well-balanced  school  of  three  departments — boys',  girls', 
and  infants' — would  be  represented  by  the  respective  accom- 
modations of  352,  352,  380,  supposing  children  under  five 
years  of  age  are  admitted. 

Class-rooms  that  must  be  used  as  a  means  of  reaching 
any  other  part  of  the  building,  public  thoroughfare,  or 
playground — "  passage  rooms,"  as  they  are  called — are  not 

1  For  new  buildings  in  the  County  of  London,  40  is  the  maximum 
limit  for  the  senior  departments  and  48  for  infants. 

S.O.  4 


18  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

satisfactory,  as  interruption  of  work  and  strain  on  the 
teacher's  powers,  especially  his  patience,  are  involved.  It 
is  important,  when  class-rooms  are  separated  by  movable 
partitions,  that  the  separation  should  be  reasonably  com- 
plete as  regards  both  sight  and  sound.  It  is  often  found 
convenient  in  emergency  and  other  cases  to  be  able  to 
convert  two  class-rooms  into  one.  A  room  that  accommo- 
dates seventy  children,  for  example,  which  is  too  large  for 
one  teacher,  could  be  suitably  divided  into  two  parts  of 
thirty  and  forty  for  the  use  of  the  upper  standards,  and  be 
re-converted  into  its  original  size  as  occasion  requires. 
•  (1)  Movable  Partitions. — In  some  of  the  older  school 
buildings,  containing  only  one  or  two  large  rooms,  collap- 
sible partitions  of  a  substantial  kind,  glazed  in  their  upper 
parts  in  order  not  to  intercept  light,  have  been  found  a 
means  of  creatine;  or  increasing  class-room  accommodation, 
while  still  retaining  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  restore 
the  rooms  to  their  original  sizes  when  desired.  This  kind 
of  partition  effects  a  complete  separation  from  floor  to 
ceiling,  and  is  easily  folded  like  a  drawing-room  screen,  its 
support  strains  being  chiefly  borne  by  the  lateral  walls  to 
which  it  is  permanently  attached.  By  these  means  a  hall 
becomes  converted  into  two,  three,  or  more  class-rooms 
according  to  the  number  of  partitions,  and  can  still  be  used 
as  a  hall  for  assembly,  dismissal,  and  other  purposes. 
This  arrangement,  however,  has  its  disadvantages,  often 
in  the  resultant  ill-shaped  class-rooms,  the  absence  of  inde- 
pendent entrances  and  exits,  and  the  frailty  of  the  material, 
which  permits  the  passage  of  sounds  from  one  room  to. 
another  ;  but  the  gain,  nevertheless,  is  considerable. 

(2)  Curtains,  etc. — The  use  of  curtains  to  separate  one 
part  of  a  room  from  another  has  advantages ;  they  should, 
not,  however,  be  used  when  other  and  better  means  of 
isolation  are  possible,  and  should  always  be  regarded  as  a. 


CLASS-ROOMS.  19 

temporary  expedient.  Curtains  are,  perhaps,  less  objection- 
able when  made  of  washing  material ;  but  they  almost 
invariably  obstruct  the  light  and  do  very  little  towards 
deadening  the  sound.  Dwarf  portable  screens  of  wood  and 
cathedral  glass  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  curtains. 
When  curtains  are  deemed  necessary,  they  should  be 
thoroughly  shaken  or  cleansed  weekly. 

Class-rooms  of  the  same  superficial  area  and  of  equal 
height  are  not  necessarily  suitable  for  the  same  number 
of  children.  The  kind  of  desks  and  the  possibilities  of 
arranging  them  satisfactorily  in  regard  to  the  light,  the 
position  of  the  doors,  radiators  or  fireplaces,  the  shape  of 
the  room,  etc.,  are  factors  for  consideration  in  determining 
the  accommodation.  As  to  shape,  the  Board  of  Education l 
express  approval  of  a  room  approximating  to  that  of  a  square: 
but  this  can  scarcely  be  considered  the  best  standard. 

(3)  The  Extra  Room. — Besides  the  desirability  of  having 
a  marginal  accommodation  for  each  room  of  a  department, 
there  is  need  for  an  occasional  or  extra  room,  which  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  included  in  the  official  accommodation  :  or, 
if  included,  it  should  only  be  recognised  for  20  or  25  places, 
though  on  the  10  sq.  ft.  basis  it  might  accommodate  at  least 
50  or  60  children.  Such  a  room  could  be  put  to  a  variety 
of  uses,  all  pointing  in  the  direction  of  increased  efficiency. 
It  might,  too,  assume  many  forms  according  to  local 
needs.  It  might,  for  example,  be  utilised  as  an  ungraded 
room  either  permanently  or  intermittently.  If  permanently, 
the  room  might  be  a  comparatively  small  one ;  if  inter- 
mittently, it  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate 
any   of   the   ordinarv    classes.     Grenerallv   a  commodious 

1  "The  proportions  of  class-rooms  should  vary  with  the  kind  and 
arrangement  of  the  desks  ;  but  a  long  and  narrow  room  should 
always  be  avoided,  and  a  room  approximating  to  a  square  is  the  most 
satisfactory."- — Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 


20  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

room  of  this  type  is  best,  since  it  could  then  be  utilised  for 
a  variety  of  purposes  as  occasion  requires. 

Again,  a  demonstration  room  is  most  useful- — especially 
for  the  science  work  of  the  upper  classes  or  the  object- 
lessons  of  the  lower  ones,  and  for  lantern  lessons  generally. 
A  room  of  this  kind  is  usually  fitted  with  a  well-equipped 
demonstration  table  or  bench  ;  a  double  vertically  sliding 
blackboard,  the  framework  of  which  is  fixed  to  the  wall 
nearest  the  table  and  facing  the  class  ;  and  also  with  floor- 
ing so  terraced  that  each  row  of  desks  rises  above  the 
one  in  front  of  it,  giving  every  scholar  an  easy  and  unin- 
terrupted view  of  any  experiment  that  is  being  performed. 
It  is  not  uncommon  to  have  a  smooth  white  surface  of 
cement  behind  the  sliding  blackboard,  to  take  lantern 
pictures.  The  Board  of  Education  will  not,  however, 
approve  of  a  special  lecture-room  of  this  kind,  outside 
the  accommodation,  in  any  ordinary  public  elementary 
school.  Apart  from  the  visual  facilities  Avhich  a  room  of 
this  kind  confers,  the  opportunity  for  occasional  change 
that  it  affords  is  one  that  promotes  both  bodily  health 
and  mental  alertness. 

With  certain  exceptions,  every  class-room  should  be 
stepped.  Usually  three  flights  of  stepping  are  deemed 
sufficient — the  three  back  rows  of  desks  then  assuming 
terrace  form. 

(4)  Booms  for  Art  Instruction  and  Practical  Work 
generally. — There  is  in  educational  circles  a  growing 
demand  for  specially  designed  and  equipped  rooms,  suit- 
able for  general  practical  work  and  instruction  in  drawing. 
It  is  recognised,  however,  that  some  practical  work  is 
already  done  in  the  class-room,  though  more  could  well  be 
carried  out  there. 

Nevertheless,  there  are  some  kinds  of  experimental  work 
that  need  a   wider  field   for  scholars  than   the  ordinary 


SPECIAL    ROOMS.  21 

class-room  can  give  and  a  more  intimate  supervision  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher — work  of  a  systematised  nature  calcu- 
lated to  train  the  child  in  habits  of  close  observation, 
reasoning  from  that  observation,  and  recording  his  im- 
pressions in  fairly  exact  language.  Theory  can  only  be 
vitalised  by  practice.  Every  step  in  the  educative  pro- 
cess is  imperfect,  unless  the  cycle  of  observation,  thinking, 
and  expression  or  application  is  made  complete  within  a 
reasonable  time.  The  claim  for  at  least  one  practical  work- 
room may  be  justified  on  the  following  grounds : — 

(a)  School  education  is  intended  to  train  the  child  for 
complete  living.  Life  is  essentially  practical.  The  work 
of  the  school  shoidd  therefore  approximately  correspond 
to  the  character  of  the  activities  external  to  it. 

(b)  The  adjustment  of  the  hand  and  the  due  co-ordina- 
tion of  other  parts  of  the  body,  to  carry  out  the  behests  of 
the  mind  in  experimental  work,  is  a  branch  of  physical 
culture ;  and  this  applies  equally  to  the  co-ordination  of 
hand  and  eye  in  drawing.  Physical  training  apart  from 
mental  must  be  defective  that  does  not  include  this  type 
of  individual  application — group  exercises,  games,  and  con- 
tests being  assumed. 

(c)  The  cycle  involved  in  every  phase  of  the  educative 
process  cannot  be  complete  without  proper  facilities  for 
practical  work. 

(d)  The  moral  influence  that  naturally  flows  from 
serious  independent  effort  directed  to  ends  either  immediate 
or  remote  is  a  most  important  element  in  the  creation  of 
will  power  and  therefore  in  the  formation  of  character. 

(e)  The  need  for  occasional  change  of  immediate  environ- 
ment, and  of  emancipation  from  the  sedentary  restraints 
of  the  ordinary  class-room  by  which  circulation  is  retarded 
and  the  vital  processes  to  some  extent  arrested,  is  impera- 
tive if  free  development  is  to  be  secured. 


22  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(/)  The  change  from  the  class-room  to  the  fresher  air 
and  freer  atmosphere  of  the  practical  work-room  energises 
both  body  and  mind,  and  gives  rest  to  the  tissues  fatigued 
by  sedentary  positions.  Change  is  eminently  desirable  when 
fatigue  is  local  and  nut  also  general. 

Of  course  economic  claims  must  put  some  limit  to  these 
special  rooms.  When  therefore  it  is  not  possible  to  pro- 
vide both  a  practical  work-room  and  an  art  room — the  hall, 
if  there  is  one,  might  well  take  the  place  of  the  latter,  if 
satisfactorily  lighted — one  commodious  room  could  be  made 
to  serve  the  double  purpose  by  fitting  collapsible  ledges  to 
the  walls  and  by  utilising  for  practical  work,  when  neces- 
sary, the  adjustable  desks  usually  supplied  to  art  rooms. 

It  is  assumed  that  manual  training  involving  the  use  of 
wood  would,  in  existing  centres  as  in  the  past,  be  confined 
to  the  upper  classes  of  boys'  departments.  For  boys  aged 
eight  to  eleven,  manual  work  involving  the  use  of  paper, 
cardboard,  and  stripwood,  clay  modelling  or  modelling  in 
plasticene  seems  admirably  fitted.  Much  of  this  manual 
work  is  also  suitable  for  girls  :  and  it  would  correlate 
excellently  with  History,  Nature  Study,  Geography,  Arith- 
metic, Geometry  and  Drawing. 

Making  the  above  assumptions  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
work  to  be  attempted,  and  keeping  also  in  view  the 
necessity  for  teaching  arithmetic  and  other  subjects  as 
practically  as  possible,  a  room  of  dimensions  approxi- 
mately 30'  x  24',  supplied  on  three  sides  at  least  with  a 
flat  desk  running  around  the  walls  at  a  height  of  3  feet 
from  the  floor,  would  prove  most  useful.  Narrow  tables, 
or  benches  not  fixed  to  the  floor,  could  occupy  the 
middle  of  the  room  when  art  desks  are  not  present.  A 
supply  of  stools  would  be  necessary,  as  the  pupils  would 
occasionally  be  seated  for  drawing  (not  art),  and  also 
during  talks  on  theory  by  the  teacher. 


INFANT    ROOMS.  23 

Such  a  room  could  also  be  used  by  girls  for  needlework 
and  cutting  out,  and  some  of  the  other  subjects  or' 
instruction. 

General  equipment  should  follow  and  conform  to  the 
gradual  organisation  of  the  work,  especially  if  it  is  proposed 
to  make  such  a  room  a  centre  for  two  or  three  schools. 

It  is  not  intended  that  this  practical  work-room  should 
necessarily  be  used,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  ordinary 
class-room,  for  work  of  the  manual  training  type.  It  is 
rather  intended  as  a  room  to  supplement,  in  a  specialised 
form,  the  manual  work  that  can,  under  existing  con- 
ditions, be  carried  out  in  the  class-room,  especially  among 
the  lower  classes. 

(5)  Infant  Rooms. — All  rooms  for  infants  must  be  on 
the  ground  floor,  the  means  of  access  to  which  should,  as 
a  rule,  be  independent  of  those  for  the  senior  children. 
In  village  areas,  however,  where  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  infant  classes  in  the  same  department  with  the  older 
scholars,  separate  entrances  are  not  always  practicable. 

A  hall  or  some  other  free  space  for  inarching  and  games  is 
essential  to  an  infant  department  or  infant  classes.  There 
is  a  division  of  opinion  among  teachers  and  others  as  to 
the  value,  for  the  youngest  children  in  infant  departments, 
of  flat  floors  on  the  one  hand,  and  stepped  flooring  on  the 
other.  It  used  to  be  a  general  practice  to  provide  galleries 
for  the  babies :  but  these  terraced  masses  of  woodwork  are 
doomed  to  extinction.  In  some  areas  they  are  gradually 
being  removed  in  favour  of  flat  floors  and  miniature  tables 
and  chairs.  The  gallery,  though  useful  in  many  ways, 
especially  if  so  arranged  that  the  teacher  can  easily  get 
behind  each  child,  is  yet  open  to  many  objections,  among 
which  are  the  following  : — 

(a)  It  occupies  a  large  space  in  the  room  which  is  needed 
for  the  free  circulation  of  air. 


24  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(b)  Dust  and  organic  matter  pass  through  the  spaces 
between  the  boards  and  accumulate  below,  where  the  air 
is  almost  stagnant  and  necessarily  impregnated  with 
gases  injurious  to  health. 

(c)  The  high  stepping  causes  some  children  to  stumble 
occasionally  and  to  injure  themselves. 

These  objections  more  than  outweigh  all  the  advantages 
that  could  be  possibly  cited  in  the  gallery's  favour. 

In  order  to  economise  space  the  seats  or  kindergarten 
desks  are  placed  close  to  the  walls  on  three  sides  of  some 
babies'  rooms,  and  thus  most  of  the  floor  space  is  available 
for  exercises  and  games.  In  this  case  all  the  floor  space  is 
flat.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  level  floor 
is  most  suitable  for  children  up  to  five  years  of  age. 

Again,  it  has  been  advocated  that  the  best  relative 
positions  for  teacher  and  taught  are  for  the  former  to  be 
on  a  slightly  raised  platform  and  the  latter  on  the  level 
floor.  This  arrangement  is  objectionable,  since  it  causes 
the  children  to  raise  their  eyes  above  the  horizontal,  and 
this  throws  a  strain  on  the  levator  muscle  which  it  is  not 
well  adapted  to  bear.1 

When  practicable,  a  nature-study  room  for  the  infants 
is  very  desirable.  If  this  is  not  possible,  inside  ledges  to 
the  windows,  whereon  seeds  and  plants  may  be  developed, 
are  a  fairly  good  substitute.  Each  class-room,  indeed, 
ought  to  be  a  miniature  nature- study  room  in  itself. 

A  suitable  height  for  a  class-room  is  14  ft.  Any  height 
over  that  is  considered  waste,  since  it  serves  no  useful 
purpose. 

(6)  Accommodation  of  Booms. — A  large  number  of 
schools  still  have  their  accommodation  reckoned  on  the 
9  sq.  ft.   basis,  i.e.  the  superficial  area  necessary  for  each 

1  See  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  of  the  late  School  Buard  for 
London  for  the  year  ended  March  1904. 


PREMISES    POK    SPECIAL    PURPOSES.  25 

child.  Ill  all  new  schools  the  Board  of  Education  are 
demanding  a  10  sq.  ft.  basis  for  ordinary  senior  depart- 
ments and  a  9  sq.  ft.  for  infants.  This  basis  is  by  no  means 
ideal.  Growing  children,  and  especially  infants,  require 
more  fresh  air  even  than  adults.  To  keep  the  air  pure  at 
all  periods  of  the  year,  under  existing  official  conditions, 
and  under  too  some  of  the  best  systems  of  ventilation,  has 
been  found  practically  impossible.  It  is  therefore  most 
desirable  to  raise  the  accommodation  basis.  Halls  and 
special  rooms  for  cookery,  laundry,  housewifery,  manual 
training,  science  and  drawing,  must  not  be  included 
in  the  official  accommodation  of  the  school. 

Premises  for  Special  Purposes. — Some  additional 
points  concerning  premises  other  than  those  of  the  ordinary 
school : — 

(1)  The  Higher  Elementary  School.1 — The  principles 
governing  the  plans  of  ordinary  schools  should  have  a 
general  application  to  those  of  higher  elementary  and 
other  similar  schools.  The  special  aim  of  every  proposed 
school  of  this  type  should  be  definitely  settled  before  the 
building  is  designed.  For  a  higher  elementary  school 
accommodating  from  300  to  350  scholars,  eight  to  ten 
class-rooms  will  generally  be  required,  since  every  class 
should  have  its  own  room,  and  no  room  should  accommo- 
date more  than  forty  scholars. 

The  class-rooms  may  be  furnished  with  single  or  dual 
desks.  If  single  desks  are  adopted,  a  class-room  should 
have  an  area  of  about  fifteen  square  feet  per  scholar. 
Class-rooms  fitted  with  dual  desks  need  not  be  so  large, 
but  a  minimum  of  about  twelve  square  feet  per  scholar 
will  be  requisite. 

1  See  Board  of  Education's  Bides  for  the  2ylcmniwj  and  fitting  up 
of  Public  Elementary  Schools. 


26  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Special  rooms,  other  than  ordinary  class-rooms,  must,  as 
a  rule,  be  provided :  their  nature  will  naturally  depend  on 
the  general  method  to  be  applied  and  the  curriculum 
adopted — they  must,  in  any  case,  be  reasonably  com- 
modious and  suitably  equipped.  If  a  laboratory  is  pro- 
vided or  drawing  taught,  then  the  rooms  sanctioned  for 
these  purposes  should  afford  thirty  square  feet  of  floor 
space  for  each  scholar  in  accordance  with  the  accommo- 
dation. If  suitably  lighted,  however,  the  hall  might  suffice 
for  drawing  purposes. 

(2)  The  Central  School.1 — On  all  material  points  the 
buildings  erected  for  this  purpose  correspond  to  those 
built  for  higher  elementary  and  certain  higher  grade 
schools.  The  class-rooms  are,  for  example,  designed  for 
not  more  than  forty  scholars,  and  special  rooms  are 
provided  for  drawing  and  general  practical  work.  A  hall 
that  will  accommodate  the  whole  of  the  pupils  at  one  time 
is  included. 

Itoonis    for   Cookery,    Manual    Instruction,  etc. — 

As  a  rule  a  single  room  each  for  cookery,  laundry- work, 
manual  instruction,  science,  or  drawing,  will  serve  for 
more  than  one  school  if  provided  as  a  centre  in  a  con- 
venient position.  Every  such  centre  should  have  its  own 
lavatory  and  cloak-room. 

Large  schools,  or  schools  of  an  exceptional  type,  such  as 
a  higher  elementary  school,  may  sometimes  require  special 
rooms  for  their  exclusive  use. 

Cookery. — A  cookery  room  should  be  capable  of  accom- 
modating from  twelve  to  eighteen  scholars  engaged  in 
practical  work.  Provision  for  instruction  in  scullery  work 
is  also  necessary. 

The  sink  should  be  placed  in  full  view  of  the  teacher 

1  Recently  established  by  the  L.C.C. 


PREMISES    FOR    SPECIAL    PURPOSES.  27 

and  pupils,  and  should  be  fitted  with  a  cold  water  supply 
and  a  waste  pipe. 

The  floor  space  for  practical  work  shoidd  afford  about 
25  square  feet  for  each  scholar,  and  should  not  be  en- 
cumbered with  desks,  cupboards,  or  stoves. 

In  cookery  rooms  the  ventilation  needs  special  arrange- 
ments. Where  a  gas  stove  is  used,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  have  a  pipe  fixed  to  carry  off  noxious  fumes.  The 
temperature  should  not  be  allowed  to  rise  above  seventy 
degrees. 

The  apparatus  for  lessons  in  cookery  should  include 
such  stoves  and  other  appliances  as  are  usually  found  in 
the  homes  of  the  scholars,  and  are  sufficient  to  meet  their 
needs  in  actual  practice.  Indeed  all  fixtures  and  other 
appliances  should  be  so  arranged  that  every  pupil  may 
receive  the  full  benefit  of  the  instruction  given. 

Laundry. — A  laundry  should  be  of  simple  construction, 
and  entirely  apart  from  the  ordinary  school  buildings. 
On  the  accommodation  basis  it  should  provide  at  least 
25  square  feet  of  space  for  every  pupil. 

The  benches  or  tables  should  be  large  enough  to  allow 
at  least  three  feet  of  space  for  each  child  when  ironing. 

In  the  ventilation  of  the  rooms  special  arrangements 
should  be  made  for  the  removal  of  steam. 

Housewifery. — A  housewifery  centre '  usually  consists  of 
an  ordinary  five-  or  six-roomed  cottage  such  as  the 
ordinary  parent  of  a  child  attending  an  elementary  school 
would  occupy.  It  is,  therefore,  furnished  simply  and 
comfortably,  and  with  such  household  appliances  as  are 
deemed  necessary  to  efficient  domestic  management. 

Manual  Instruction  for  Boys. — "  In  its  plan,  arrange- 
ments, construction,  lighting,  and   ventilation,  a  manual 

1  The  Board  of  Education  has  not,  up  to  the  present,  laid  down 
rules  for  the  planning  and  fitting  up  of  housewifery  centres. 


28  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

instruction  room  should  be  modelled  on  a  workshop  rather 
than  on  a  school.  The  construction  should  accordingly  be 
simple.  The  roof  may  be  either  of  lean-to  or  other 
ordinary  form,  according  to  circumstances.  Its  height  at 
the  windows  in  front  of  the  benches  need  not  be  more 
than  ten  feet.  The  light  must  be  ample.  The  tempera- 
ture should  not  be  so  high  as  in  an  ordinary  class-room. 
A  flat  ceiling  is  not,  as  a  rule,  necessary.  Ample  ventila- 
tion should  be  provided  by  inlets  at  a  height  of  five  feet 
from  the  floor,  and  by  outlets  at  the  highest  point.  A 
manual  instruction  room  for  twenty  scholars  should  have 
a  floor  space  of  about  700  square  feet."1 

Science  or  Practical  Work  Boom. — A  room  suitably 
fitted  for  elementary  practical  work  in  science  may  be 
provided  for  the  use  of  one  large  or  several  contributory 
schools.  Such  a  science  room  should  not,  as  a  rule, 
contain  more  than  600  square  feet  of  floor  space.  It 
should  be  fitted  with  plain  strong  tables,  sinks,  cupboards, 
shelves,  and  where  necessary,  a  fume  closet.  A  proper 
supply  of  gas  is  necessary. 

In  addition  to  a  science  room,  one  of  the  ordinary 
class-rooms  may  be  fitted  with  a  simple  demonstration- table 
and  gas  and  water  supply.  But  a  special  lecture-room 
cannot  be  approved  in  an  ordinary  public  elementary 
school. 

Art  Booms. — "  A  drawing  class-room  can  only  be  sanc- 
tioned where  it  is  likely  to  be  used  for  a  reasonable 
time  every  week  by  the  scholars  from  one  large  or  several 
contributory  schools.  A  suitable  size  for  such  a  room  is 
600  square  feet  of  floor  space.  Light  should  be  admitted 
at  a  suitable  height  and  angle  from  the  north,  north-east 
or  east."2  G-enerally  a  drawing  class-room's  accommoda- 
tion should  not  exceed  twenty-five. 

1  Board  of  Education  Regulations.         2  Ibid. 


PREMISES    FOR    SPECIAL    PURPOSES.  29 

Rooms  for  Defective  Children. — -N.B.  These  rules  must  be 
read  in  conjunction  with  the  general  rules  for  the  planning 
and  fitting  up  of  public  elementary  schools.  Each  build- 
ing designed  for  defective  children  should  be  "  structurally 
separated"  from  that  approved  for  each  type  of  defective 
child. 

Day  Schools  or  Classes  for  Defective  Children. — 

(a)  Each  class-room  must  provide  18  square  feet  per 

child  for  physically  defective  children.  In  all 
other  defective  cases,  15  square  feet  at  least 
should  be  the  basis  of  accommodation.  The 
minimum  floor  space  of  any  class-room  might 
vary  from  300  to  360  square  feet,  the  latter 
being  the  minimum  for  physically  defectives.  It 
is  desirable  that  all  rooms  should  be  furnished 
and  equipped  for  occupations  or  manual  in- 
struction. 

(b)  All    playgrounds,    offices,    cloakrooms,    lavatories, 

entrances,  and  passages  must  be  so  constructed 
as  to  admit  of  easy  supervision  by  the  teacher 
of  the  school,  and  must,  as  a  rule,  be  kept 
for  the  sole  use  of  the  children  attending  that 
school. 

(c)  All  rooms  for  physically  defective  children  must  be 

on  the  ground  floor. 

(d)  Where  the  premises  are  intended  for  the  use  of 

more  than  one  class,  they  must,  as  a  rule,  include 
a  wide  and  well-lighted  corridor  or  hall,  which 
can  be  used  for  drill  and  assembly. 

(e)  Each    child  must,   as   a  rule,  be  provided    with  a 

single  desk  of  suitable  size,  and  sloped  at  an 
angle,  except  in  schools  for  the  blind,  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  degrees. 


30  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(/)  The  playgrounds  must  have  an  area  of   not  less 
than  thirty  square  feet  per  child  and  should  be 
separate  for  boys  and  girls. 
(g)   There  should  be  a  room  for  the  use  of  the  teacher 

and  for  the  medical  examination  of  children. 
It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  the  general  principle 
applied  in  the  construction  of  all  special  premises  and  in 
the  supply  of  furniture  and  equipment  is  that  they  shall 
completely  fulfil  the  purpose  of  their  existence. 

The  Playground. — There  are  many  schools  without 
playgrounds. 

The  Board  of  Education  now  wisely  demand  that  every 
newly  planned  school  shall  have  an  "  open  airy  play- 
ground," proportioned  to  its  size  and  needs.  All  play- 
grounds should  have  a  sunny  aspect,  approximate  to  the 
square  in  form,  be  enclosed,  levelled  and  drained,  and  be 
as  far  as  possible  free  from  dangerous  corners  and  but- 
tresses :  a  part  should  be  covered  in  so  as  to  afford  pro- 
tection from  rain.  An  infants'  playground  must  always 
be  on  the  same  level  as  the  school  and  have  a  sunny 
aspect. 

Roof  playgrounds  for  senior  boys  or  girls  are  found 
here  and  there  in  large  urban  centres.  Where  suitable 
play-spaces  exist  organised  effort  is  fairly  generally  made 
to  keep  the  children  from  the  streets  and  to  interest  them 
in  games  supervised  by  teachers  and  voluntary  workers. 
Berlin  and  Charlottenburg,1  for  example,  organise  games 
in  the  summer  months,  at  least  twice  a  week  from  4  to 
6  p.m.,  in  play  and  recreation  grounds.  An  experiment, 
too,  in  providing  a  course  of  games  during  the  summer 
holidays,   under  various   superintendents,  has  proved  ex- 

1  See  Report  of  Mr.  G.  Andrew  to  the  Scotch  Education  Depart- 
ment, 1904. 


THE    PLAYGROUND.  31 

ceedingly  popular — an  occasional  excursion  to  places  of 
interest  giving  to  these  courses  an  added  charm.  Winter, 
too,  has  not  been  left  without  its  organised  recreation ;  for 
parts  of  the  recreation  grounds  have  been  converted  into 
skating  rinks,  upon  which  the  children,  boys  at  one 
time  and  girls  at  another,  have  been  able  to  disport 
themselves. 

Similar  private  effort  is  in  operation  in  London — 
perhaps  on  a  more  extended  scale — and  other  large  towns, 
the  object  being  at  stated  times  and  at  particular  centres 
to  teach  the  children  the  ideals  of  play  under  able  super- 
intendents, and  further  to  demonstrate  to  the  older 
children  how  fascinating  work  can  become  when  interest 
prompts  and  sustains  it.  As  an  arena  for  moral  training 
the  playground  has  few  rivals,  for  there  the  social  instinct 
is  dominant  and  ready  to  put  forward  those  fine  qualities 
associated  with  it  in  its  best  form.  Cheerfulness,  resource, 
prudence,  justice,  sacrifice,  delight  in  the  pleasure  of  others, 
and  the  satisfaction  that  activity  gives  are  taught,  culti- 
vated, or  strengthened  by  play  under  proper  conditions. 

Indeed,  the  playground  affords  one  of  the  best  oppor- 
tunities for  the  teacher  to  study  the  characters  of  scholars. 
His  presence  there  is  essential  at  all  reasonable  times. 
Knowledge  is  always  power,  and  the  kind  of  knowledge 
that  can  be  acquired  in  this  way  is  the  key  to  sound 
progress  and  the  moral  betterment  of  every  scholar  in  the 
school.  Good  and  bad  traits  of  character  exhibited  in  the 
playground  the  teacher  can  utilise  as  an  object-lesson  in 
the  class-room  later,  and  especially  employ  them  to  illus- 
trate the  weekly  hall  address.  Of  course,  all  such  references 
should  be  impersonal. 

Play  is  instinctive,  and  nature  intends  it  to  serve  useful 
ends.  For  very  young  children  it  is  the  most  important 
of  all  means  of  learning.     It  is  indeed  the  chief  agency  in 


32  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

development  at  this  period  of  life ;  it  is  the  resultant  of 
forces  that  infants  are  powerless  to  resist.  The  sum  of  a 
teacher's  efforts  as  revealed  by  effects  in  the  process  of 
education  is  almost  infinitesimal  compared  with  the  know- 
ledge a  child  acquires  through  the  instruction  of  nature's 
teachers,  play  and  necessity. 

With  infants,  therefore,  up  to  about  five  years  of  age, 
the  playground  should  be,  in  spirit,  the  school,  and  the 
class-room  the  accessory.  Rapid  growth  and  development, 
until  seven  summers  have  passed,  demand  a  freedom  of 
movement  and  excite  a  desire  for  activity,  to  which  the 
child  naturally  craves  to  respond.  The  variety  of  employ- 
ment that  play  gives  is  doubtless  one  of  the  best  responses 
to  nature's  call. 

In  summer  and  on  other  favourable  occasions,  therefore, 
every  opportunity  should  be  seized  to  utilise  the  infants' 
playground  for  games  and  other  kindergarten  instruction. 
In  the  words  of  Pestalozzi,  "  Neither  book  nor  any  product 
of  human  skill,  but  life  itself,  yields  the  basis  for  all 
education."  Again,  "Dumb  yearnings,  hidden  appetites 
are  ours  ;  and  they  must  have  their  food.  Come  into  the 
light  of  things,  let  Nature  be  your  teacher."1 

"The  essential  things  in  education  are  intellectual 
interest,  freshness  of  teaching,  human  sympathy,  devotion 
to  high  aims.  These  are  spiritual  things,  and  the  spirit, 
like  the  wind,  bloweth  where  it  listeth." 2 

The  teacher  ought,  therefore,  to  enter  upon  his  work 
with  the  spirit  of  an  artist, — led,  as  it  were,  by  that 
spirit  into  the  schoolroom  (which  might  often  be  under 
the  open  sky),  where,  with  the  aid  of  discipline  framed 
on  wisdom's  firm  lines,  but  softened  by  sympathy  and 
tempered  by  genial  moral  warmth,  he  will  endeavour  to 

1  Wordsworth. 

2  Mr.  Michael  E.  Sadler,  Special  Reports,  Vol.  9. 


SCHOOL    HYGIENE.  33 

mould  or  train  into  the  fullest  life  the  plastic  material 
committed  to  his  keeping. 

School  Hygiene. 

Matters  already  discussed  in  this  chapter  have  of  course 
a  bearing  on  school  hygiene,  but  the  following  have  a 
special  reference  to  this  subject. 

From  the  purely  health  point  of  view,  serious  attention 
should  be  given  to  three  points  in  selecting  a  school  site : 
(1)  natural  drainage — including  the  general  level  of  the 
ground  water;  (2)  the  nature  of  the  soil — a  dry  soil  is 
essential ;  and  (3)  position,  i.e.  aspect,  elevation,  and 
immediate  surroundings. 

A  south  or  south-west  aspect  is  desirable.  This  usually 
ensures  a  plentiful  supply  of  sunlight,  and  possibly  shelter 
from  north  and  east  winds.  It  is  important  that  every 
class-room  should  receive,  at  some  time  during  the  day, 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  teacher  should 
be  acquainted  with  some  of  the  essential  principles  that 
underlie  the  construction  of  school  buildings.  The  nature 
of  his  office  demands  this  knowledge.  Faults  of  construc- 
tion, any  defect  likely  to  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
work  or  to  jeopardise  the  health  of  scholars  are  matters 
that  directly  concern  him.  Some  Education  Authorities, 
too,  wisely  concede  the  need  of  submitting  plans  to  head 
teachers  when  new  buildings  are  to  be  erected,  or  old  ones 
remodelled. 

Next  to  the  site,  the  first  consideration  naturally  belongs 
to  the  foundation.  This  should  always  be  of  virgin  earth, 
and  covered  with  a  layer  of  concrete  extending  several 
inches  beyond  the  footings  of  the  external  walls.  Imme- 
diately beneath  these  walls  the  concrete  should  be  much 
s.o,  5 


34 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


deeper  than  elsewhere,  the  depth  being  proportional  to  the 
weight  of  wall  it  has  to  support.  Without  this  layer  of 
concrete,  the  moisture  and  ground  air  in  the  soil  below 
would  find  a  passage  into  the  building,  with  probably 
disastrous  results  to  the  scholars. 


135 

inches 


27  inches. 


/■^■^i v'  V/  v 


-. "» 


A  >  \  /   -  \       ■     »    ;     , 

/  0    '"CONCRETE.:  '- \" 


Fig.  4. 
Footings  of  Wall,  and  Concrete  Foundation. 


"All  walls,  not  excepting  fence  walls,  should  have  a 
damp-proof  course  just  above  the  ground  line."1  Air- 
bricks should  be  inserted  in  opposite  walls  to  ensure  a 
constant  current  of  air  under  floors  for  the  ventilation  of 
joists  ;2  and  the  damp-proof  course  should  extend  from  at 

1  Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 

2  Or  the  building  might  be  erected  on  arches  of  solid  masonry  as 
suggested  by  Dr.  Richardson  in  his  Hygeia, 


SCHOOL    HYGIENE.  35 

least  6  in.  above  the  ground  to  a  depth  below  the  level  of 
any  timber  forming  part  of  the  building.  The  damp-proof 
course  serves  a  double  purpose  :  it  ventilates  and  keeps  dry 
the  spaces  beneath  the  floors  and  prevents  the  moisture 
ascending  the  walls  by  the  operation  of  the  law  of  capillary 
attraction.  Bricks  unless  glazed  have  a  great  capacity  for 
moisture.  If  therefore  the  glazed  brick  or  glazed  stone- 
ware is  not  inserted  as  in  Fig.  5,  the  bricks  nearest  the 
ground  will  transmit  the  moisture  collected  from  the  soil 
to  those  immediately  above,  and  thus  the  whole  of  the  walls 
would  become  damp  and  dangerous  to  health. 

Floors  and  Hoofs. — Wood-blocks,  laid  upon  concrete, 
should  be  used  for  the  ground  floor.  Indeed  they  are  best 
for  all  floors,  as  they  reduce  noise  to  a  minimum '  and  do 
not  encourage  the  accumulation  of  dust  and  dirt.-  The 
ordinary  plank  floor,  after  shrinkage  has  set  in,  admits  into 
the  spaces  between  the  boards  all  kinds  of  dirt  and  organic 
matter  which  cannot  fail  to  pollute  the  atmosphere  of  the 
school- room.  Rectangular  corners  and  sharp  edges  should 
be  avoided,  for  both  concave  and  convex  surfaces  facilitate 
thoroughness  in  cleansing.  At  the  point  where  the  floor 
joins  the  wall,  for  example,  a  rounded  insertion  should  be 
made.  It  has  become  usual,  in  recent  buildings,  to  substi- 
tute coloured  glazed  bricks  for  the  old  wooden  wainscoting 
now  condemned  as  insanitary. 

Although  the  subject  of  roofs  may  seem  somewhat 
remote  from  the  teacher's  work,  their  nature  may  never- 
theless be  of  great  importance  to  him.  If  not  properly 
constructed,  teachers  and  scholars  occupying  the  top 
floor  will  suffer  from  cold  in  winter  and  the  burden  of  an 
intolerable  heat  in  summer.     Roofs   should  therefore  be 

1  "Especial  care  must  be  taken  to  render  the  floors,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, sound-proof." — Board  of  Education's  Regulations, 


30 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


Glazed  air 
brick. 


SOIL. 

Fig.  5. 

Damp  Course  of  Perforated  Glazed  Air  Br^ks. 


DAMPPBOOP 

coorssr 


CROU1IO    It  VfcL  '., 


.  . 


\  O  I   L'      » 


H5^a 


Fig.  6f 


SCHOOL    HYGIENE.  87 

constructed  to  prevent  extremes  of  beat  and  cold.  Slates 
laid  on  laths  do  not  give  adequate  protection  to  the  upper 
rooms,  but  if  laid  on  felt-covered  boards  they  materially 
assist  in  that  direction. 

As  the  roof  is  designed  to  carry  off  rainwater  as  speedily 
as  possible  without  saturating  the  walls  of  the  building  or 
the  subsoil  around  it,  it  is  essential  that  the  spouting  should 
be  arranged  to  meet  this  need.  All  rain-water  pipes  or 
gutters  should  therefore  be  kept  away  from  the  walls  an 
inch  or  so,  in  order  that,  in  case  of  overflow  or  leakage,  the 
water  may  discharge  itself  into  the  soil  without  touching 
the  walls  of  the  building. 

Internal  Walls. — These,  when  the  surface  is  rough  or 
improperly  covered,  are  a  source  of  danger  to  health.  It 
has  been  found,  for  example,  that  ordinary  plaster,  if  not 
painted,  absorbs  moisture  and  organic  matter  to  an  alarm- 
ing extent.  Fermentation  is  certain  to  result  from  the 
presence  of  such  foreign  material,  and  the  injurious  gases 
arising  therefrom  must  inevitably  mix  with  the  air  of  the 
class-room.  When  walls  of  this  kind  exist,  they  should  be 
cleansed  much  more  frequently  than  they  usually  are,  and 
a  disinfectant  be  added  to  the  fresh  colour  wash. 

The  aim  should  be,  in  all  cases,  to  produce  a  wall  surface 
that  is  both  smooth  and  non- absorbent.  Walls  made  of 
either  of  the  following  materials  are  satisfactory  in  this 
respect,  the  last  being  considered  the  best:1  (1)  plaster 
covered  with  a  smooth  impervious  substance  (e.g.  paint  and 
varnish)  ;  (2)  impervious  hard  bricks  embedded  in  cement ; 
(3)  glazed  bricks  or  enamelled  tiles.  Occasional  cleansing 
is,  however,  necessary  in  all  cases  ;  and  this  might  well  be 
done  during  the  three  vacations  of  the  year. 

In  selecting  colours  for  the  walls,  a  tint  that  will  neither 

1  See  Lyster's  School  Hygiene. 


88  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

offend  nor  tax  the  eye,  nor  unduly  absorb  light,  is  generally 
best.  Red  absorbs  much  light ;  but  yellow  on  the  other 
hand,  though  it  absorbs  very  little  light,  yet  produces  more 
nervousness  and  fatigue  than  other  colours.  Pale  green  is 
especially  restful  to  the  eye,  and  it  also  stands  low  as  a 
light  absorber.  A  pale  greenish-grey,  however,  is  recom- 
mended as  the  most  suitable  colour. 

All  unnecessary  ledges  and  projections,  and  indeed  any- 
thing that  interferes  with  thorough  cleansing,  should  be 
avoided. 

Entrances,  Staircases,  and  Corridors. — There  should 
be  separate  entrances  and  staircases  for  each  department 
and  sex,  sufficient  in  number  or  size  to  allow  for  the  dis- 
missal of  the  scholars  in  about  two  minutes.  The  chief 
entrances  must  not  be  through  cloak-rooms,  and  all 
entrance  doors  should  be  made,  for  obvious  reasons,  to 
open  both  ways,  namely  inwardly  and  outwardly.  Fire- 
proof staircases  in  which  there  are  no  triangular  steps  are 
necessary.  Staircases,  the  steps  of  which  should  be  13  in. 
wide  and  not  more  than  6  in.  high,  should  be  sufficient  in 
number  and  breadth  (4  feet)  to  provide  for  cases  of  emer- 
gency, and  upper  floors  that  exceed  250  in  accommoda- 
tion should  have  a  second  staircase.  Where  steps  lead  to 
an  external  door,  a  landing  between  that  door  and  the 
threshold  is  essential.  It  is  desirable  too  to  have  (1)  a 
landing  for,  at  least,  every  flight  of  twelve  steps,  and  (2)  a 
handrail  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  staircase. 

Classes  ought  always  to  be  marched  in  single  or  double 
file,  under  careful  supervision,  both  from  the  playground 
to  the  class-rooms  and  from  the  class-rooms  to  the  play- 
ground. Accidents  are  apt  to  occur  unless  steadiness  is 
observed  in  descending  a  staircase.  Corridors,  which 
should  generally  be  about  10  ft.  wide,  or  staircases  should 


SCHOOL    HYGIENE.  39 

never  be  used,  even  for  temporary  purposes,  for  storage  of 
any  kind. 

Cloak-rooms  and  Lavatories. — Cloak-rooms  should 
have  double  doorways,  so  that  scholars  may  enter  by  ono 
door  and  leave  by  another.  They  should  not  be  passage 
rooms  nor  corridors,  nor  directly  connected  with  any  rooms 
used  for  teaching  purposes.  Ample  space  is  needed  imme- 
diately outside  a  cloak-room.  Thorough  ventilation  and 
good  lighting  at  one  end  are  essential.  There  should  be 
gangways  at  least  4  ft.  wide  between  the  rails,  and  the 
pegs  should  be  sufficient  for  all  the  scholars  in  the  school, 
be  12  inches  apart,  numbered,  of  two  tiers,  and  not  placed 
directly  one  above  the  other.  There  is  a  disposition  in  many 
boys'  departments  to  ignore  the  cloak-room  in  fine  weather. 
This  ought  never  to  be  allowed.  Considerations  of  health 
forbid  this  disuse. 

It  is  further  desirable  to  have  concrete  floors  and  walls 
of  glazed  brick  in  cloak-rooms,  which  should  be  so  tho- 
roughly heated  and  ventilated  that  wet  clothes  may  be 
rapidly  dried.  Metal  frameworks  similar  to  that  in 
Fig.  7,  with  its  multitude  of  apertures,  through  which  the 
heated  fresh  air  can  freely  circulate,  have  been  found  very 
efficient. 

One  lavatory  basin  for  about  every  fifty  children  is 
considered  sufficient,  but  this  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a 
satisfactory  provision  for  cleanliness.  One  basin  for  every 
twenty-five  scholars  seems  necessary.  The  absence  of 
proper  accommodation  of  this  kind  is  not  only  mischievous 
in  its  direct  effects,  but  also  in  its  ultimate  tendencies.  As 
personal  cleanliness  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  it  ought 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief  lessons  to  be  learnt  in 
school  life.  It  is  well,  therefore,  for  the  school  to  begin 
this  lesson  by  providing  suitable  lavatory  accommodation. 


40 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


A  cloak-room  is  not  a  proper  place  for  lavatory  fittiugs  of 
any  kind. 


Fig.  7. 

Metal  Cloak-room  Fittings. 

Lighting — Natural  and  Artificial. — Dark  corners  or 
dark  places  are  harmful.  As  regards  class-rooms,  left 
lighting  is  best,  that  is,  light  directly  striking  the  scholars' 
left  shoulders  when  facing  the  teacher.      Supplementary 


Lighting.  41 

windows  are,  however,  often  necessary  for  ventilating  pur- 
poses. When  left  lighting  is  impracticable,  right  lighting 
should  be  secured,  if  possible.  Official  approval  is  not 
extended  to  sky-lights  except  for  halls,  and  then  only  when 
"ridge  or  apex  ventilation"  is  necessary.  Light  that 
comes  mainly  from  behind  the  scholars  or  immediately  in 
front  of  them  is  of  the  worst  kind. 

The  ideal  light  is  that  which  is  abundant  and  well- 
diffused.  It  should  be  abundant  on  account  of  its  purifying 
qualities,  and  well-diffused  because  dark  places,  shadows, 
and  the  direct  impact  of  light  on  the  eyes  are  more  or  less 
injurious.  The  sills  of  the  main  windows  should  be  placed 
not  more  than  four  feet  above  the  floor;  the  tops  of  the 
windows  should  reach  the  ceiling,  and  the  upper  parts 
of  them  made  to  swing.  Large  wall  spaces  between  the 
window  heads  and  the  ceiling  produce  foul  rooms.  All 
kinds  of  glazing  that  diminish  the  quantity  of  light  and 
are  difficult  to  clean  should  be  avoided.  The  glass-line  of 
the  window  furthest  from  the  teacher's  table  should  be  on 
a  line  with  the  back  of  the  last  row  of  desks.1  A  proper 
arrangement  of  blinds  will  not  allow  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun  to  fall  on  desks — a  necessary  precaution. 

In  some  urban  centres  it  becomes  necessary  to  improve  the 
lighting  in  class-rooms,  because  the  sky  line  is  obstructed 
by  the  height  and  proximity  of  other  buildings.  Devices 
for  improvement  involve  the  use  of  (1)  reflectors,  (2)  glass 
prisms,  and  (3)  ribbed  glass.  The  prisms  are  so  arranged 
in  a  part  of  the  window  that  light  is  deflected  to  the  white 
ceiling  and  thence  distributed  over  the  class-room.  The 
ribbed  glass,  however,  is  supposed  to  give  the  best  results. 
It  has  a  smooth  surface  on  one  side,  and  twenty-one  ribs 
to  the  inch  on  the  other,  the  ribs  being  placed  horizontally. 
It  is  claimed  for  this  glass,  if  fixed  to  the  upper  sash, 
1  See  Board  of  Education's  Building  Regulations. 


42  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

that  it  will,  on  dull  days,  improve  the  illumination  by  fifty 
per  cent,  at  least.1 

The  light  on  a  desk  placed  in  the  most  unfavourable 
position  should  not  fall  below  the  power  of  fifty  candle 
metres2 — otherwise  eye  strain  will  result. 

Interior  colouring  has  an  important  bearing  on  lighting. 
The  colours  and  tints  used  for  walls,  ceilings,  and  fittings 
should  be  restful  to  the  eyes.  In  some  areas  teachers  are 
advised  in  good  time  of  the  intention  to  repaint  the  school 
and  requested  to  suggest  the  interior  colouring.  It  some- 
times happens  that  the  happiest  choice  is  made. 

In  recent  buildings,  in  accordance  with  the  Board  of 
Education  Regulations,  the  windows  are  large  and  numer- 
ous, and  reach  nearly  to  the  ceiling.  The  "  dim  religious 
light"  may  be  productive  of  sentiment,  but  it  is  inimical 
to  health  when  associated  Avith  schools. 

Assuming  that  rooms  are  adequately  provided  with  open- 
ings, it  is  extremely  important  that  the  glass  be  kept 
clean ;  otherwise  the  passage  of  light  to  the  rooms  will  not 
only  be  seriously  obstructed,  but  the  dirt  and  organic 
material  deposited  on  the  glass  may  prove  injurious  to  the 
health  of  the  children.  In  any  case,  such  deposits  neces- 
sarily lower  the  vital  properties  of  the  air,  and  may,  if  one 
pupil  in  the  class  is  suffering  from  incipient  disease,  be  the 
means  of  causing  infection. 

Illumination  by  gas  with  the  ordinary  burner  is  oue  of 
the  worst  forms  of  artificial  lighting.  It  uses  up  large 
quantities  of  oxygen,  creates  dirt,  and  charges  the  air  with 
many  impurities  inimical  to  health.  The  evils  attendant 
on  gas  lighting  are,  however,  somewhat  mitigated  if  incan- 
descent  burners   and    mantles   are   used.      The    Siemens 

• 

1  See  Lyster's  School  Hygiene,  p.  47. 

2  A  candle  metre  is  the  illumination  given  by  a  standard  candle 
placed  one  metre  distant  from  a  certain  spot. 


HtiATINci    AND    VENTILATION.  43 

Regenerative  G-as  Lamp,  too,  is  not  only  an  extremely 
powerful  illuminant,  but  lias  the  further  advantage  of 
carrying  off  its  own  fumes,  besides  rendering  material 
assistance  in  the  removal  of  vitiated  air  that  is  usually 
found  near  the  ceiling.  This  is  an  excellent  lamp  for 
large  rooms  and  halls.  The  Wenham  is  also  another 
good  burner,  the  flame  being  enclosed  in  glass  globes,  aud 
the  products  of  combustion  being  forced  from  the  room  as 
soon  as  produced. 

The  electric  light  appears  to  be  the  most  suitable  for 
schools.  It  is  clean ;  and  if  of  sufficient  candle  power  and 
not  hung  too  high,  it  renders  the  most  efficient  service. 

Heating  and  Ventilation. — Heating  and  ventilation 
are  inextricably  involved  and  must  be  considered  together. 
Good  ventilation  consists  in  driving  foul  air  out  of  the 
room  as  soon  as  created,  and  replacing  it,  without  causing 
draughts,  by  fresh  air  containing  normal  quantities  of 
oxygen.  This  seems  a  very  simple  matter,  but  it  has 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  all  problems.  It 
is  certain  that  many  schoolrooms  are  poorly  ventilated  even 
when  reasonable  use  is  made  of  the  appliances  available. 
The  odor  scholasticus,  especially  during  the  winter  season,  is 
only  too  evident.  Besides  the  ordinary  means  of  ventilating 
by  open  windows,  Tobin's  tubes,  chimney  extractors,  wall 
and  ceiling  gratings,  and  open  fire-places  have  so  far  failed 
to  give  that  adequate  and  continuous  supply  of  fresh 
air  which  is  desirable.  Tobin's  tubes,  generally  placed 
in  corners  of  rooms,  are  a  valuable  means  of  inlet,  while 
separate  air  chimneys  are  serviceable  in  providing  for  the 
outflow  of  foul  air  containing  such  deleterious  impurities 
as  carbon  dioxide  and  albuminoid  ammonia. 

Fresh  air  contains  four  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  (C02)  to 
every  10,000  parts,  or  "04  per  cent.     An  atmosphere  that 


44  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

contains  about  ten  parts  in  10,000  is  injurious  to  health. 
It  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  carbonic  acid  gas 
takes  up  the  space  of  fifteen  or  more  parts  in  10,000  in 
some  school  class-rooms  just  before  the  recreation  interval 
— and  this,  too,  when  reasonable  use  has  been  made  of  the 
means  of  ventilation  at  hand.  Haldane's  apparatus  is  able 
to  record  the  amount  of  C02  impurity  in  a  room  any  time 
during  the  day. 

It  is  a  singular  fact  that  children  give  out  from  their 
bodies  proportionately  a  larger  quantity  of  organic  impuri- 
ties than  adults.  These  impurities,  ordinarily  consisting 
of  the  tiniest  particles  of  epithelium  and  fatty  matters, 
together  with  COa,  etc.,  ought  to  find  a  ready  means  of 
exit  from  the  rooms ;  otherwise  these  small  organic  par- 
ticles get  deposited  on  the  walls  and  their  ledges — especially 
if  the  walls  are  cold — and  make  demands  upon  the  oxygen 
of  the  rooms  that  is  needed  for  other  purposes.  The  odor 
scholasticus  is  mainly  due  to  these  organic  substances  in 
the  air. 

This  tendency  to  deposit  on  the  school  walls  shows  the 
desirability  (1)  of  never  allowing  the  walls  to  get  abnor- 
mally cold  even  during  the  night,  since  they  take  a  com- 
paratively long  time  to  get  restored  to  the  temperature  of 
the  room's  atmosphere  again,  and  (2)  of  ventilating  the 
premises  thoroughly  immediately  after  the  morning  and 
afternoon  sessions.  Lofty  rooms,  though  they  give  extra 
cubic  space,  do  not  help  to  maintain  a  good  atmosphere  or 
to  promote  sound  ventilation.  Indeed,  it  is  considered 
that  a  height  above  14  ft.  may  prove  baneful  unless  the 
openings  are  correspondingly  high. 

Good  ventilation  should  provide  at  least  1,800  cubic  feet 
of  fresh  air  per  hour  for  every  child  and  not  allow  air  to 
stagnate  in  any  part  of  the  building.  It  should  further 
provide   that  the  admitted  air   be   approximately  of    the 


VENTILATION.  4'^ 

same  temperature  as  that  which  is  in  the  room,  for  when 
the  air  is  warmed  before  admission  it  prevents  draughts. 
This  can,  to  some  extent,  be  effected  by  devices  in  aid  of 
natural  ventilation  and  also  by  means  of  certain  forms  of 
mechanical  or  artificial  ventilation.  The  Plenum  system, 
for  example,  claims  to  do  all  this.  It  drives  the  warm  air 
into  the  rooms  near  the  ceiling  and  draws  out  the  foul  air 
on  the  same  side  of  the  room  near  the  floor.  In  this  wav 
every  room  can  have  a  renewed  atmosphere  from  eight  to 
ten  times  in  an  hour. 

When,  however,  natural  ventilation,  as  distinguished 
from  mechanical,  like  the  Plenum  system — which  cannot 
lie  regarded  as  a  success — is  adopted,  the  windows  should 
be  largely  used  as  outlets  for  foul  air  in  the  cold  season ; 
they  should  also  be  used  as  far  as  possible  at  all  times  for 
inlets,  especially  when  the  air  temperature  external  to  the 
school  is  not  much  lower  than  that  within. 

The  value  of  the  recreation  interval,  from  the  ventilation 
point  of  view  only,  is  great.  As  soon  as  the  room  is  cleared 
all  doors  and  windows  should  be  opened,  so  that  the  children 
may  return  to  an  atmosphere  as  pure  as  that  in  the  play- 
ground. 

It  is  clear  that  sound  ventilation  must  provide  inlets 
for  fresh  air  as  well  as  outlets  for  what  is  foul.  The 
latter  are  usually  placed  near  the  ceiling.  A  valuable  out- 
let, too,  is  the  chimney  itself ;  and  if  to  this  is  added  a 
separate  air  shaft  carried  up  in  the  same  stack  with  the 
smoke  flues  and  rendered  permanently  effective  by  warmth 
or  exhaust,  the  provision  for  outlets,  including  gratings 
near  the  ceiling  and  the  use  of  the  upper  sashes  of  win- 
dows, is  fairly  complete. 

The  chief  inlets  for  fresh  air  are  the  windows,  Tobin's 
tubes,  grates  like  Dalton's,  and  ventilating  stoves.  There 
are  many  devices  in  connection  with  windows  for  secur- 


46 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION". 


ing  good  ventilation  without  draughts.  Among  these  are 
(1)  the  draught  board,  (2)  Hopper  openings,  (3)  the 
Louvre  ventilator,  and  (4)  the  Chaddock  window.  (1)  is 
a  vertical  board  or  framework  of  glass,  a  few  inches  high, 
fastened  on  the  inner  ledge  of  the  window  so  that  the  lower 
sashes  can  be  raised  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air  which 


Fig.  8. 
Hinokd  Toi*  to  Window. 


can  flow  into  the  room,  taking  an  upward  direction,  between 
the  window  plane  and  the  board  in  question.  (2)  This 
opening  is  usually  effected  by  means  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  window,  which  works  on  a  hinge  and  is  made  to  slant 
inwards.  The  triangular  spaces  thus  created  at  the  sides 
must  be  covered  in  by  wood  or  glass  in  order  to  prevent  a 
downward  current,  and  thus  the  whole  of  the  incommcr 
ajr  is  forced  upward  (see  Fig.  8).     Arrangement  (3)  con* 


VENTILATION. 


de- 


sists of  a  few  bands  of  glass  (arranged  and  worked  like  a 

Venetian  blind)  that  form  a  part  of  an  ordinary  window. 

The  bands  in  every  case  slant 

upwards  from  the  outside  and 

thus  compel  the  air  to  take 

an  upward  direction.    (4)  The 

illustration  of  the  Chaddock 

window  will  speak  for  itself. 

It  is  easily  manipulated  and 

has    proved    an    unqualified 

success. 

A  Tobin  tube  provides  for 
entry  of  the  external  air 
through  a  grating  in  the  wall 
at  the  floor  level.  A  vertical 
tube  then  directs  the  air  up- 
wards, at  the  top  of  which 
is  a  valve  which  automatically 
regulates  the  quantity  of  air 
coming  into  the  room. 

Electric  fans  are  often  use- 
ful aids  to  natural  ventilation. 

Artificial  ventilation  de- 
pends on  two  processes, 
(1)  Extraction,  (2)  Propul- 
sion. Extraction  depends  on 
the  principle  of  the  vacuum. 
Vitiated  air  is  extracted  or 
driven  out  and  fresh  air 
naturally  flows  in  through 
the    channels     provided     for 

that  purpose.  By  Propulsion  the  fresh  air  is  forced  into 
the  chamber  and  the  foul  air  is  drawn  off  at  the  floor 
level.    The  test  systems  usually  combine  the  two  processes, 


Fig.  9. 

The  Chaddock  Window. 


48 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


It  is  best,  however,  to  place  faith  in  natural  ventilation, 
accepting  in  connection  therewith  such  useful  minor  aids 
as  the  ingenuity  of  man  can  supply.  Elaborate  artificial 
contrivances  are  pre-doomed  to  failure. 

Heating  and  ventilation  depend  on  one  another.  Heat- 
ing is  ventilation's  motive  power.  Heating  is  effected  by 
(1)    open   fires  or  closed  stoves,  (2)   gas  fires  or  stoves, 


Side  \J\evj 


m 


„ 


Front  inside  view 


Fig.  10. 
Louvre  Ventilator. 


(3)  warm  air,  (4)  hot- water  pipes ;  or,  taking  a  scientific 
principle  of  classification,  by  (1)  radiation  and  (2)  propul- 
sion. Convection,  of  course,  plays  an  important  part  in  all 
systems  of  ventilation.  Galton's  grate,  which  is  largely 
used,  has  a  warm-air  chamber  behind  it.  The  chamber 
draws  the  cold  air  from  the  outside,  and,  after  warming  it, 
discharges  it  into  the  room  through  gratings.  Whenever 
stoves  are  used  they  must  be  fitted  with  a  flue  to  carry  oft 
the  fumes. 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 


49 


Stoves  give  a 


Open  fires  materially  assist  in  ventilation  and  are  cheer- 
ful :  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  wasteful,  only  about  15  per 
cent,  of  the  heat  generated  being  used  to  warm  the  room,  and 
even  then  the  heat  is  not  well  distributed, 
fairly  equable  distribution  of  heat  and 
are,  as  a  rule,  the  least  costly  of  all 
forms  of  heating ;  they,  however,  need 
much  attention,  are  liable  to  get  out  of 
order,  and  make  the  atmosphere  some- 


Fig.   11. 

Town's  Tube. 


Fig. 


12. 


The  G alton  Grate. 

a,  Hot  -  air  chamber 
.surrounding  flue  ;  b, 
opening  fur  fresh  air  ; 
c,  inlet  into  room. 


what  heavy.     With  regard  to  hot- water 
pipes  and  hot-air  radiators,  they  usually 
secure  an  equable  distribution  of  heat 
and  a  purer  atmosphere  than  that  asso- 
ciated with   stoves   or  open  fires ;   but 
the  air   loses   its   humidity  and   freshness  unless  porous 
vessels  containing   water   are    present.       It   is    desirable 
therefore  to  have  a  wet  and  dry  bulb  hygrometer  in  each 
s.  o.  6 


50  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

class-room  when  the  building  is  heated  on  either  of  these 
two  systems. 

The  temperature  in  an  infants'  school  ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  fall  below  60°  F.,  while  that  for  the  senior 
scholars  might  vary  from  56°  to  60°  F.  In  no  case  ought 
the  temperature  to  fail  below  50°  or  to  rise  above  00°, 
that  is,  of  course,  if  it  lies  within  human  power  of  control. 
When  the  temperatures  of  the  air  inside  and  outside  a 
school  differ  by  10°  F.,  a  draught  will  be  caused  unless 
precautions  are  taken. 

In  summer  time,  when  the  heat  is  great,  sprinkling  the 
floor  occasionally  with  water  helps  to  keep  the  temperature 
down. 

Each  class-room  should  be  furnished  with  a  thermo- 
meter. 

An  open  lire  is  desirable,  and  a  temperature  of  60°  is 
essential,  for  babies'  rooms.  The  Board  only  approve  of 
stoves  "  with  proper  chimneys  and  supplied  with  fresh  air 
direct  from  the  outside."  Further,  stoves  must  not 
"  become  red-hot  or  otherwise  contaminate  the  air,"  and 
must  be  so  placed  as  not  to  interfere  with  "  floor  space 
necessary  for  teaching  purposes." 

All  fireplaces  and  stoves  should  be  furnished  with  fire- 
guards.1 

Sanitary  Arrangements.2 — Scholars'  latrines  should 
be  in  the  playgrounds  and  completely  separated,  and  if 
possible  well  removed,  from  the  main  school  building. 
They  should,  of  course,  together  with  their  approaches,  be 

1  On  the  subject  of  ventilation  the  student  is  referred  to  Lyster's 
School  Hyyiene  ;  School  Hygiene,  by  Newsholnie  and  Takes  ;  and 
the  Report  of  the  Medical  Officer  (School  Board  for  London)  for 
the  year  ended  March  1904. 

2  See  Board  of  Education  Rules  for  the  Planning  and  Fitting  up 
of  l'ublic  Elementary  Schools. 


t)ESKS.  51 

quite  distinct  for  boys  and  girls.  Offices  not  provided 
with  either  automatic  or  individual  means  of  Hushing 
should  be  Hushed  at  least  twice  a  day  by  the  caretaker.  It 
is  essential  to  have  a  full  and  ready  supply  of  wholesome 
water  for  drinking  purposes,  and,  so  far  as  local  conditions 
will  admit,  the  best  possible  sanitary  arrangements. 

Desks. — The  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education  in 
reference  to  desks  may  be  thus  summarised:  (1)  Seats 
and  desks,  with  backs  to  them,  must  be  provided  for  all 
scholars  suitably  to  their  ages,  and  must  be  arranged  at 
right  angles  to  the  window  wall.  (2)  Each  scholar  should 
be  allowed  at  least  eighteen  inches,  and  there  should  be 
gangways  of  eighteen  inches  between  groups  of  desks 
and  between  desks  and  walls.  (3)  Desks  should  not  be 
longer  than  twrelve  feet,  and  not  more  than  six  rows  deep. 
(4)  In  the  case  of  long  desks,  the  teacher  must  be  able  to 
pass  between  the  rows;  and  in  the  case  of  dual  desks, 
behind  the  back  rows.  (5)  An  inclination  or  slope  of  15° 
for  each  desk  is  sufficient.  Flat  top  desks1  are  objection- 
able. For  writing  purposes  the  "  distance "  should  be 
zero.  (The  "  distance  "  is  zero  when  a  vertical  line  from 
the  inner  edge  of  the  desk  exactly  meets  the  inner  edge  of 
the  seat.  When  the  seat  goes  beyond  that  line,  or  does 
not  reach  it,  the  "  distance "  is  respectively  minus  and 
plus.) 

Usually  desks  are  made  in  six  sizes,  graduated  to  meet 
the  needs  of  scholars  of  various  ages.  There  is  much 
variety  of  opinion  concerning  "  distance,"  some  advocating 
the  plus,  others  the  zero,  and  others  again  the  minus.  The 
first  must  be  condemned,  as  it  encourages,  and  sometimes 
necessitates,  stooping.  The  zero  or  minus  distance  is  best 
for  desk  work  with  pen  or  pencil,  since  both,  and  especially 

1  TMb  does  not  apply  to  kindergarten  desks. 


52  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  latter,  render  the  erect  posture  comparatively  easy. 
The  use  of  the  flap  in  dual  desks  should  not  be  neglected. 
It  is  not  only  valuable  for  reading  purposes,  but  also  for 
giving  freer  play  to  the  body  during  oral  lessons.  It 
further  enables  the  scholars  to  stand  comfortably  erect 
without  leaving  the  desk. 

(1)  Dangers  from  Improper  Desks. — The  importance  of 
having  desks  to  meet  the  needs  of  each  scholar  has  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  recognised.  Spinal  deformity,  cramped 
chests,  short-sightedness,  eye  strain,  and  stooping  habits 
are,  among  other  evils,  the  outcome  of  compelling  children 
to  sit  for  hours  daily  in  desks  unsuited  to  their  physical 
proportions. 

Preference  must  be  given  to  the  dual,  rather  than  to  the 
long,  desk.  The  single  desk,  largely  used  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  is  again  better  than  the  dual.  The 
use  of  the  single  desk,  however,  considerably  reduces  the 
accommodation  of  a  room — by  about  thirty-three  per  cent. ; 
but  in  all  other  respects  it  is  eminently  satisfactory  and 
easily  takes  first  rank  in  all  appliances  of  this  kind ;  and 
this  is  especially  so  from  the  hygienic  standpoint. 

(2)  "Sheffield  System:'— The  "Sheffield  System"  of 
desks  is  in  favour  in  many  schools  in  the  North  of 
England.  In  this  system  the  desk  is  long  and  accommo- 
dates, as  a  rule,  six  pupils,  but  the  seats  are  isolated  and 
screwed,  like  the  desk  itself,  to  the  floor.  It  is  claimed1 
for  this  system  that  every  pupil  is  easily  accessible,  that 
the  lateral  space  between  the  seats  enables  the  pupil  to 
stand — so  that  drill,  for  example,  may  be  taken — that 
it  becomes  impossible  to  overcrowd  a  room,  and  that  it 
facilitates  the  sweeping  and  washing  of  floors.  The  desks 
are  made  in  various  sizes,  the  seats  having  corresponding 
heights. 

1  See  Report  of  Medical  Officer  (School  Board  for  London)  1904 


DESKS. 


53 


But  this  system  is  not  without  its  defects,  which  may 
be  thus  enumerated:  (1)  The  desks  have  the  plus 
distance.  (2)  The  back-rest  is  too  small  and  does  not, 
as  a  rule,  support  the  back  in  the  most  suitable  place. 
(3)  Scholars,  though  seat-isolated,  are  really  nearer  one 
another  than  in  most  dual  desks.  (4)  They  induce  fatigue 
to  a  greater  extent  than  the  dual  or  single  desk.  (5) 
There  is  no  provision  for  placing  the  book  in  the  right 
visual  position  for  reading— from  45°  to  60°.  (6)  The 
class  roll  must  be  strictly  limited  to  the  official  accom- 
modation of  the  room.  This,  however,  is  good  from  the 
purely  educational  standpoint,  though  not  always  so  from 
the  administrative  point  of  view. 

General    Conditions   for    Good    Desking. — (1)    The 

desk  should  fit  the  child,  the  nearer  end  of  the  desk  being 


Fig  13. 

The  "Sheffield  System,"  showing  an  isolated  seat  for  each  scholar. 


opposite  the  navel.  (2)  Each  child  in  a  class  having 
found  a  suitable  desk  should  be  allowed  to  retain  it  for 
six  months,    when  seats  should  be  redistributed.     Some 


54  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

children  grow  so  rapidly  that  a  year  ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  intervene  between  each  redistribution.  (3)  Each 
class-room  should  be  supplied  with  at  least  three  different 
sizes  of  desks,1  all  of  which  should  have  comfortable 
back-rests.  Age  is  but  a  small  criterion  of  the  physical 
proportions  of  children.  (4 1  Each  desk  should  allow  of 
reasonable  freedom  of  movement  and  permit  of  occasional 
standing.     (5)  The   scholars  should   be  easily  accessible. 


Fig.  14. 
Common  Position  for  Whiting  in  a  Plus  Desk. 


(6)  The  desk  should  be  firm  and  rigid  and  have  an  angle 
of  15°  to  the  horizontal.  The  minor  features  associated 
with  suitable  desks  are  presumed. 

The  fitting  of  the  desk  to  the  child  includes  also  facilities 
for  securing  the  upright  posture  and  balance  of  the  body. 
This  balance  can  onlv  be  obtained  when  the  thighs' are 
approximately  horizontal,  the  tibia  vertical,  and  the  feet 
firmly  resting  on  the  floor.     Further,  steadiness  is  given  to 

1  That  is  for  Senior  Departments.  Prohahly  two  sizes  of  desks 
would  suffice  for  the  lower  grades  of  an  Infant  School. 


DESKS    AND    POSTURE.  55 

the  bodv  if  the  left  forearm  rests  on  or  near  the  edare  of 
the  desk  and  almost  in  a  line  with  it.  By  these  means 
the  chest  is  free  for  expansion,  the  abdominal  viscera  are 
not  cramped,  there  is  an  absence  of  physical  conditions 
calculated  to  impede  circulation,  and  thus  energy  is 
economised  and  mental  activity  promoted. 


Fig.  15. 

Good  Position  in  Zero  Desk. 
This  position  is  tiring  because  there  is  no  support  for  the  back. 

It  is  especially  desirable  that  the  desk  should  allow  of 
the  regulation  distance  between  the  eyes  and  the  object. 
This  varies  from  ten  to  sixteen  inches. 

It  is  not  possible  to  secure  these  conditions  with  the 
ordinary  long  desk  unless  there  are  many  sizes,  and  the 
scholars  are  carefully  classified  before  allocating  places  to 
them.     It  is  eiddent  that  if  the  seats  of  desks,  which  should 


£6  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

never  be  flat  but  always  slightly  concave,  were  made 
adjustable,  a  much  larger  number  of  desk  sizes  would  not 
be  needed,  and  the  necessity  for  a  periodical  redistribution 
of  seats  would  not  be  so  pressing.  Height  of  children  is 
not  always  a  guide  in  selecting  suitable  desks  for  them. 
Any  two  scholars,  for  example,  of  the  same  height  might 
be  taken,  and  they  would  probably  be  found  to  differ  in 
length  of  trunk,  legs  and  arms,  all  of  which  are  factors 
in  determining  suitability  of  desks.  Girls,  too,  differ  in 
this  respect  from  boys,  for  they  have  generally  longer 
bodies  and  shorter  limbs.  It  is  important  also  to  realise 
that  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age  girls  grow  much 
more  rapidly  than  boys. 

An  excellent  dual  or  single  desk,  which  is  only  to  a 
minor  degree  adjustable,  is  used  in  Holland.  It  has  &phig 
distance  of  about  two  inches,  but  the  slope  is  a  sliding 
shutter  (beneath  which  the  pupils'  books  and  implements 
can  be  stored)  which  can  be  moved  towards  the  sitter  and 
thus  transform  the  desk  into  one  possessing  a  zero  or  minus 
distance,  as  occasion  may  require.  When  the  shutter  is 
closed,  it  covers  the  inkwell,  and  thus  prevents  the  dust 
from  accumulating  there. 

In  Lucerne,  experiment  has  shown  the  desirability  of 
having  from  five  to  seven  different  sizes  of  desks  for  each 
class.  In  Chicago,  measurement  of  children  proves  the 
necessity  for  supplying  each  school  with  five  different  sizes 
of  stationary  desks  and  three  sizes  of  adjustable  desks. 
The  Child  Study  Committee  has,  therefore,  recommended 
that  each  class  or  grade  be  supplied  with  from  75  to  85  per 
cent,  of  stationary  desks  suitable  to  the  physical  proportions 
of  children  generally  found  in  a  particular  grade,  and  also 
from  15  to  25  per  cent,  of  adjustable  desks. 

Most  scholars  take  up  the  forward  sitting  position  which 
usually  results  from  improper  desks,  and  especially  those 


FURNITURE  AND  EQUIPMENT.  57 

that  have  the  plus  "  distance."  The  tendencies  of  this 
position  are  to  impede  circulation,  weaken  the  eyes,  cause 
muscular  strain,  fatfgue,  and  in  the  course  of  time  even 
spinal  curvature.1 

The  general  use  of  the  single  desk,  made  in  a  variety  of 
sizes,  would  solve  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  desking  prob- 
lems. There  is,  however,  no  reason  why  school  life  should 
be  so  largely  affected  by  the  possibilities  of  the  desks. 
There  is  far  too  much  sitting  in  the  class-rooms.  Stand- 
in  £  now  and  again  for  a  few  minutes  in  reading  or  oral 
lessons,  and  on  other  occasions  when  this  position  is  not 
incompatible  with  work,  relieves  monotony  and  tends  to 
energise  the  body.  But  there  are  proper  and  improper 
ways  of  standing.  Generally  the  body  should  be  erect,  its 
weight  about  equally  supported  by  the  legs,  the  balls 
of  the  feet  as  well  as  the  heels  playing  their  part  in 
this  support.  The  head  too  should  be  thrown  well  back 
and  the  chest  forward.  If  standing  is  prolonged,  the 
stand-at-ease  position  should  be  adopted,  subject,  however, 
to  the  general  conditions  already  named. 

Infant  Furniture. — Level  floors  have  already  been 
advocat-ed  for  infants  up  to  five  years  of  age.  Kindergarten 
dual  desks  are  fairly  suitable  for  such  children  ;  but  a  much 
better  arrangement  is  the  provision  of  low  tables,  at  which, 
seated  on  miniature  chairs,  from  two  to  four  children  can 
find  accommodation.  The  distribution  of  a  class  into  small 
parties,  together  with  the  homely  suggestiveness  of  tables 
and  chairs,  encourages  the  social  instinct  and  excites 
self-expression.  This  arrangement  is  particularly  beneficial 
to  timid  and  nervous  children.  Supervision  by  the  teacher 
and  accessibility  to  the  scholars  are  rather  improved  than 

1  See  Child  Study  Report  (No.  3)  1 000-1 001 ,  Chicago  Public  Schools. 
See  also  Biirgerstein's  Schulhygiene. 


58  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

otherwise  by  this  plan  for  kindergarten  instruction.  With 
the  chair  the  child  has  a  freedom  of  movement  that  is 
most  desirable  at  this  age.  Change  Of  position  diminishes 
the  possibilities  of  fatigue  ;  fatigue  creates  fretfulness  and 
lessens  memory  power.  The  sunshine  of  happiness  is  best 
for  growth  and  development  physically,  morally,  and  in- 
tellectually. The  face  to  back  position  necessitated  by 
groups  of  desks  discourages  the  social  sentiment  and  really 
isolates  scholars,  though  sitting  together  and  forming  the 
same  class. 

Wall  Boards,  etc. — It  is  well  for  infant  class-rooms  to 
have  a  composition  wall  strip — chocolate  colour  is  probably 
the  best — within  easy  reach  on  every  side.  Many  schools 
have  this  arrangement  for  free-arm  drawing;  in  others 
small  blackboards  are  fitted  into  grooves  attached  to  the 
walls  of  halls  and  of  one  or  more  class-rooms  ;  or,  when 
a  hall  is  available,  miniature  blackboards  and  easels  are 
supplied  for  the  use  of  individual  scholars,  who  do  most  of 
their  free-arm  drawing  there.  Free-arm  drawing  can  also 
be  done  in  desks,  by  means  of  wire  easels  affixed  thereto, 
into  each  of  which  fits  a  large  millboard.  The  instability 
of  the  frail  easel  is,  however,  a  drawback.  The  easily 
cleansable  composition  strip  is  probably  the  most  suitable, 
especially  as  it  compels  scholars  to  stand  whilst  drawing. 

Indeed,  infants,  as  well  as  other  scholars,  have  far 
too  much  sitting  in  school.  Standing  occasionally,  whilst 
at  work,  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes — and  sometimes 
even  longer  for  older  children — is  a  wholesome  exercise. 
The  arm  has,  for  example,  freer  play  in  drawing  when  the 
scholar  is  standing,  and  can  therefore  work  with  better 
effect.  For  these  reasons  the  drawing  wall  strip  is  a 
desirable  adjunct  to  every  class-room  in  both  infants'  and 
senior  departments.      It   has,  however,  its  strict   limita- 


FURNITURE    AND    EQUIPMENT.  59 

tions,  inasmuch  as  only  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the 
scholars  of  a  class  can  have  this  form  of  free-arm  drawing 
at  the  same  time.  The  wire  easels  impose  no  such  limi- 
tation, though  in  other  respects  they  are  less  satisfactory. 

Blackboards,  Cupboards,  etc. — Wall  slates,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  blackboards  and  easels,  are  a  desirable 
acquisition  to  every  class-room.  Fixed  slates  are  espe- 
cially valuable  for  information  which  it  is  desired  to  keep 
before  the  eyes  of  the  class  for  some  time.  It  is  known 
that  the  larger  the  number  of  senses  that  can  be  appealed 
to,  the  greater,  as  a  rule,  is  the  educational  effect  and 
the  stronger  the  mental  image  created  thereby.  This,  of 
course,  has  an  important  bearing  on  memory,  that  plays 
a  giant's  part  in  the  educative  process.  Memory  lends 
itself  to  the  perfection  of  accomplishment  by  a  nicer 
co-ordination  of  forces  in  the  repetition  of  any  act.  The 
audio-visual  memory  is,  as  a  rule,  stronger  than  either 
the  auditory  or  visual  alone.  Again,  the  audio- visual - 
articulatory  memory  is  stronger  than  the  audio-visual  one; 
and  so  on.1 

Blackboards  in  combination  with  wall  slates  often  ob- 
viate the  necessity  for  eye-straining  on  the  part  of  the 
scholars. 

In  this  connection  the  teacher  should  remember  that 
chalk  dust,  if  inhaled,  is  injurious.  It  is  well  therefore  to 
have  the  duster  slightly  moistened,  and  thus  prevent  the 
dust  from  getting  into  the  air  of  the  class-room. 

Each  class-room  should  have  its  own  cupboard  for 
current  stock.  Cupboards  built  into  wall  recesses  give 
generally  a  neater  appearance  to  a  room  than  those  not  so 
iixed. 

Every  scl  >ol  should  have  a  First  Aid  equipment,  proper 

1  See  Child  Study  Report  1900-1001,  Chicago  Tuhlie  Schools. 


GO  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

accommodation  for  ink  trays,  and  a  museum  case,  the  last- 
named  to  contain  only  such  objects  as  are  likely  to  be 
generally  useful  in  illustrating  lessons.  This  case  should 
not,  therefore,  be  used,  as  it  frequently  is,  for  a  collection 
of  curiosities  that  are  rarely  moved  from  their  positions, 
and  occupy  space  that  could  be  better  filled  by  really  ser- 
viceable objects.  It  is  well  to  encourage  the  scholars  to 
assist  in  furnishing  a  cupboard  of  this  kind,  the  omnium 
gatherum  principle  being  strictly  tabooed. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  every  infant  depart- 
ment should  have  a  complete  kindergarten  equipment. 

The  Teachers'  Room. — School  premises  can  hardly  be 
considered  complete  without  a  room  or  rooms  for  the 
teachers,  comfortably  furnished  and  adequately  supplied 
with  lounge  chairs,  a  reference  library,  and  lavatory  accom- 
modation. As  their  work  is  of  an  arduous  nature,  an  easy 
means  of  rest  should  be  assured  to  the  staff  when  not  on 
active  duty.  A  storage  room  for  school  material  should, 
as  a  rule,  adjoin  a  room  of  this  kind. 

Oiled  Floors.1 — The  presence  of  dust  in  the  air  of 
the  school-room  and  its  accumulation  on  ledges,  picture 
frames,  and  tops  of  cupboards  are  sources  of  danger  to 
health.  An  experiment  is  therefore  in  operation  in  some 
areas  with  the  view  of  eliminating,  or  reducing  to  a 
minimum,  this  clanger  :  it  takes  the  form  of  oiling  the 
floors.  This  plan  does  much  in  the  way  of  acconrplishing 
its  purpose,  though  the  appearance  of  the  floor  after  the 
oiling  operation  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  Mistresses,  too, 
complain  of  the  damage  to  their  skirts,  and  justifiably  so. 
However,  the  present  device  will  probably  soon  lead  to 
a  better  one.     A  large  experience  of  oiled  floors  has  now 

1  See  Report  of  the  I,.C.C.  Medical  Officer  (Education)  1910. 


OILED    FLOORS.  01 

been  had  in  Germany,  and  in  an  official  memorandum  the 
Prussian  Minister  of  Education  discusses  the  results,  and 
summarises  them  thus  : — ■ 

"  The  experience  now  obtained  shows  that  the  use  of  oil 
for  floors  is  only  to  be  strongly  recommended  when  the 
following  methods  are  used  :  (1)  The  oil  is  to  be  applied 
during-  holidays,  and  as  early  as  possible,  so  that  with  soft 
white  wood  floors  of  fir  or  pine  at  least  forty-eight  hours, 
and  with  harder  floors,  as  oak  or  beech,  at  least  three  days, 
elapse  before  the  opening  of  school.  (2)  The  floors  must 
be  thoroughly  washed  with  hot  water  and  soap  or  soda, 
and  then  completely  dried  before  oiling.  (3)  The  oil  is 
best  applied  in  a  thin  and  even  coating  by  means  of  a  felt 
rubber.  (4)  To  avoid  any  unpleasant  odour,  or  unsightly 
colouring  of  the  floors,  only  fresh  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
colourless  oils  should  be  used.  (5)  The  renewal  of  the  oil 
should  be  proportionate  to  the  amount  of  traffic ;  in  little 
used  rooms,  halls,  art  rooms,  and  so  on,  twice  yearly,  in  the 
ordinary  class-rooms  thrice,  and  in  corridors  four  times 
yearly.  (6)  Stone  floors  and  steps  of  either  wood  or  stone 
should  never  be  oiled.  (7)  Drill  halls  and  gymnasiums 
should  not  have  the  floors  oiled.  If  this  is  done  it  must 
be  done  with  the  greatest  care.  (8)  Wet  cleansing  is  not 
needed  on  oiled  floors,  only  a  daily  sweeping  with  a  broom. 
Any  occasional  wet  cleansing  should  only  be  done  with 
thoroughly  wrung-out  cloths." 


CHAPTER  IL 


"The  vitality  of  any  system  of  education  must  depend  mainly  on 
the  spirit  in  which  it  is  worked,  on  the  enlightenment,  sympathy, 
and  energy  of  the  teachers,  and  on  the  interest  and  industry  of  the 
scholars." — Pre/.  Memorandum,  Code  1910. 

"For  every  piece  of  wise  work,  so  much  life  is  granted." — 
RUSKIN. 


THE  CLASS. 
The  Size  of  the  Class  in  the  Ordinary  School. 

The  Class  as  a  Working  Unit. — Although  the  indi- 
vidual is  the  unit  in  a  school,  yet  in  the  sense  of  organisa- 
tion the  class  must  be  taken  as  the  working  unit,  that  is, 
an  aggregate  of  individuals  grouped  together  for  purposes 
of  a  definite  course  of  instruction  and  training. 

It  is  manifest  that  a  lecturer  engaged  in  the  elucidation 
of  any  subject  is  in  a  very  different  position  to  that  of  the 
class  teacher.  In  the  former  case,  the  number  of  people 
who  constitute  the  audience  is  immaterial,  provided  the 
speaker's  voice  is  able  to  reach  every  person  in  the  as- 
sembly. It  is  not  necessarily  the  lecturer's  duty  to  see 
that  his  audience  has  profited  by  his  expositions,  nor  to 
apply  tests  to  discover  how  far  each  person  has  acquired 
the  information  he  desired  to  convey.  The  lecturer's 
duties  end  mostly  with  his  best  efforts  to  interest  or 
instruct  his  audience.     The  teacher's  task  is  much  more 

62 


THE    CLASS.  63 

far-reaching  than  this.  He  has  not  only  to  expound, 
unfold,  and  interest,  not  only  to  see  that  everything  is 
presented  in  such  a  way  as  to  cultivate  each  child's  mental 
power,  but  also  to  see  that  the  information  given  goes 
home,  as  far  as  possible,  to  every  member  of  the  class. 
In  other  words,  more  generally  stated,  he  must  apply 
David  Stow's  maxim,  "  The  teacher  has  not  taught  unless 
the  child  has  learned  " — learned,  that  is,  in  the  sense  that 
(he  knowledge  acquired  becomes  a  living  thing ;  but  above 
all,  he  must  not  assume  that  the  children  are  empty  vessels 
into  which  it  is  his  duty  to  be  continually  pouring  gra- 
tuitous information. 

To  accomplish  this  aim,  the  needs  of  each  scholar, 
even  the  one  with  the  least  mental  power,  must  be  care- 
fully considered.  As  the  speed  of  a  fleet  has  to  be  governed 
by  the  slowest  vessel  comprised  in  it,  so  the  rate  of  pro- 
gress of  a  class  must,  to  some  extent,  be  influenced  by  its 
dullest  member.  There  is  nothing  detrimental  in  this  so 
far  as  mere  curriculum  is  concerned.  It  is  only  nature's 
way  of  suggesting  the  brake.  Go  sloivly  and  be  thorough 
is  the  best  possible  motto  for  the  class  teacher.  Testing, 
revision,  supplementing,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  attention 
to  individual  scholars,  are  the  necessary  accompaniments 
to  substantial  class  progress.  Moral  control  must  be 
inculcated1  and  moral  stimulus  applied.  The  dull  must 
have  their  vision  clarified,  the  idle  must  be  quickened,  the 
indifferent  encouraged,  the  obstinate  subdued,  all  forms  of 
resistance  removed  or  minimised ;  and  the  teacher's  ener- 
gising spirit  should  reach  out  to  every  scholar.  From  all 
this  it  will  be  seen  how  essential  it  is  to  place  strict  limi- 
tations on  the  size  of  the  class,  if  the  teacher's  work  is  to 
be  wholly  and  individually  effective. 

1  "The  worth  of  man  depends  not  upon  his  knowledge  hut  upon 
his  will." — Herbart. 


t>4  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Size  of  Classes  and  Variations. — These  limitations, 

however,  will  vary  with  circumstances,  even  supposing 
that  the  standard  of  efficiency  is  constant.  It  is  clear  that 
the  size  of  a  class  may  depend  upon  the  ability  of  the 
teacher — the  ease  and  lucidity  with  which  he  is  able  to 
present  facts,  his  moral  power,  his  insight  into  character, 
his  energy,  the  intensity  and  extent  of  his  capability  of 
covering  the  class  with  his  eyes  ;  it  should  vary  as  the 
scholars'  attainments  and  receptive  powers  are  more  or 
less  on  a  level ;  it  must  vary  directly  as  the  dimensions  of 
the  class-room,  and  it  may  vary  according  to  the  character 
of  the  subject  of  instruction  and  the  way  in  which  it  is 
taught.  A  practical  science  lesson,  for  example,  with  only 
one  teacher  in  charge,  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  given  to 
more  than  twenty  scholars.  A  vocal  music  lesson,  on  the 
other  hand,  might  desirably  include  as  many  pupils  as  a 
hall  or  room  would  accommodate,  provided  the  instructor 
is  capable  of  holding  and  interesting  them. 

The  size  of  a  class  may,  and  often  does,  vary  according 
to  its  relative  position  in  the  school — whether  it  is  one  of 
the  upper  or  lower  classes.  In  the  upper  school,  the 
necessity  for  revision,  correction  of  exercises,  and  general 
closer  supervision  of  the  work,  makes  large  classes  a 
practical  impossibility  if  any  high  standard  of  attainment 
is  aimed  at.  And  finally  the  number  of  scholars  in  a 
class  must  vary  according  to  the  Regulations  of  the  Board 
of  Education  and  those  (if  any)  of  the  Local  Authority, 
so  far  as  they  concern  the  accommodation '  of  the  room  or 
the  status 2  of  the  class  teacher. 

There  remains,  however,  one  more  condition  of  variation 
to  be  noticed,  which  is  an  exception  to  one  cited  above,  viz. 
the  special  purpose  for  which  a  class  is  formed.     It  is 

1  Art.  14  and  Art.  19,  Code  1910. 

2  Art.  12  and  Art.  32,  Code  1910. 


THE    CLASS.  65 

evident  that  children  of  extremely  low  attainments  and  of 
exceptionally  poor  ability  should  be  grouped  together  in 
much  smaller  classes  than  those  possessing  normal  powers 
of  progress. 

The  limitations  to  the  size  of  the  class  have  been,  in 
the  past,  extremely  varied.  They  have  been  determined,  in 
most  instances,  more  by  the  iron  hand  of  economy  than  by 
educational  considerations.  Of  late  years,  however,  some 
enlightened  Local  Authorities  have  done  much  to  reduce 
the  class  to  reasonable  limits,  with  the  indirect  result  that 
this  influence  has  reacted  upon  others  and  produced  a 
general  tendency  in  the  right  direction.  The  English 
limit  for  a  certificated  class  teacher  works  out  at  60 
children — it  may  be  in  habitual  attendance.  Similarly 
an  uncertificated  teacher  is  limited  to  35 2  and  a  student 
teacher 3  to  20. 

It  is  almost  axiomatic  to  say  that  these  numbers  are  too 
large — certainly  so  far  as  the  certificated  teacher  is  con- 
cerned— bearing  in  mind  the  searchingly  individualistic 
duties  that  devolve  upon  the  class  teacher.  They  are 
faulty  in  three  respects.  In  the  first  place,  the  numbers 
are  too  high  absolutely ;  in  the  second  place,  no  allowance 

1  "Habitual  attendance"  is  not  equivalent  to  average  attend- 
ance [see  Art.  14,  Code  1910,  and  compare  with  Art.  12(a)].  The 
averages  would,  of  course,  be  less.  The  average  for  the  London 
County  Council  area  including  head  teachers  is  about  41-42.  In 
these  schools  the  limit  for  a  certificated  assistant  teacher  is  about 
50  in  average  attendance.  This  is  based  on  an  xmwritten  law  which 
is  often  generously  interpreted.  Pupil  teachers  are  not  always  con- 
sidered in  the  staffing  arrangements  Student  teachers,  however, 
are  often  qualifying  factors  in  fixing  the  staff. 

2  Art.  12  and  Schedule  L,  Code  1910. 

3  Art.  12,  Code  1910,  and  Art.  38  (b),  Regulations  for  the  Pre- 
liminary Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers.  See  also 
Schedule  II.  of  the  Code. 

S.  O.  7 


66  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

is  made  for  classes  of  scholars  containing  two  or  more 
grades  or  standards ;  and  thirdly,  no  differentiation  is 
admitted  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes  of  a  school. 
The  last  two  points  are  very  important.  No  staffing 
scheme  can  be  considered  satisfactory  which  excludes  these 
from  view,  unless  it  is  an  exceedingly  liberal  one  based  on 
general  principles. 

Some  modification  of  the  official  rule  seems  to  be  de- 
sirable.1 The  warning  note  attached  to  the  article  in 
question  points  to  the  need  of  adjusting  the  staff  to  every 
variety  of  conditions.  It  must  be  understood  that  the 
Board  of  Education  only  lay  down  the  minimum  staff  as  "a 
condition  precedent  to  a  grant."  This  minimum  "  must 
not  be  understood  to  indicate  that  a  school  thus  staffed  "  is 
necessarily  efficient.  In  every  case  the  circumstance  of  the 
individual  school  will  be  considered  in  relation  to  the 
educational  conditions  of  the  area  and  the  sufficiency  of 
the  staff  thus  tested.2 

In  the  United  States  and  the  Colonies  the  practice 
compares  favourably  with  ours.  In  New  York  the  limit 
for  a  class  is  50  and  the  average  attendance  per  teacher 
is  39 ,3  excluding  the  head  and  visiting  teachers.  In 
Queensland  the  average  for  a  teacher  is  29. 4 

The  class  numbers  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of 
Germany.  The  tabulated  statement  below  represents  the 
average  number  per  teacher  in  the  Berlin  schools,5  Class  I. 

1  Art.  12  (a),  Code  1910. 

2  Art.  10,  Code  1910. 

3  The  average  roll  per  teacher,  including  the  head,  is  44.  Vide 
Report  of  City  Superintendent  for  1903. 

4  Report  for  1903. 

5  Report  of  Mr.  Andrew,  Scotch  Education  Department,  1904. 
The  average  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  for  the  German  Empire 
was  61  in  1901.  Vide  "  History  and  Organisation  of  Public  Edu- 
cation in  the  German  Empire,  1904,"  by  Dr.  Lexis. 


THE  CLASS.                                                      67 

being  the  highest  and  corresponding  with  Standard  Ex. 
VII.  in  England. 

Class      I....  35.  Class        V....50. 

„       II.. .35.  „         VI.. ..54. 

„     III..  .41.  „       VII.. ..56. 

,.      IV. ..45.  „     VIII... .57. 


In  Berlin  the  schools  are  organised  on  the  "  eight- class  " 
system,  the  scholars  varying  in  age  from  6  to  14.  The 
classes  represent  grades  similar  to  the  English  standards, 
now  not  officially  recognised. 

Assuming:  that  the  Berlin  numbers  do  not  diner  mate- 
rially  from  the  roll,  they  may  be  regarded  as  a  fairly 
reasonable  compromise  between  economical  and  educa- 
tional claims,  and  would  present  on  the  whole  a  satis- 
factory working  arrangement  if  the  numbers  in  the  three 
lowest  classes  did  not  exceed  50.  Under  English  conditions, 
certainly,  especially  in  some  areas,  the  numbers  in  the  three 
lowest  classes  must  be  considered  too  high  for  thoroughly 
efficient  work.  Something  approaching  the  educational 
ideal  will  be  attained  when  the  average  number  of  scholars 
per  teacher  in  a  department  is  not  allowed  to  exceed  40,1 
assuming,  too,  that  each  member  of  the  staff  is  fully  quali- 
fied :  but  as  economical  considerations  have  necessarily  to 
play  an  important  part  in  education  as  in  all  other  mun- 
dane things,  it  will  probably  be  some  time  before  this 
desirable  limit  is  reached  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
It  is  no  more  practicable  to  disregard  these  considerations 
than  it  is  "  to  leap  the  world  to  come." 

Eeference  has  been  already  made  to  the  accommodation 

1  The  L.C.C.  has  accepted  this  limit  for  senior  departments  in  the 
construction  of  all  new  buildings.  The  Dutch  teachers  of  the  Social 
Democratic  Federation  are  aiming  to  limit  each  class  to  24  pupils. 
(Schoolmaster,  Sept.  10,  1904.) 


68  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

of  rooms  and  the  status  of  the  teacher  as  two  of  the  factors 
in  determining  the  size  of  classes,  the  Code  very  properly 
forbidding  overcrowding  and  overweighting.  It  is  im- 
practicable here  to  deal  with  all  the  peculiarities  of  this 
case.  The  one  instance  may  be  taken  in  which  a  class  is 
too  large  for  the  status  *  of  the  teacher,  but  not  too  large 
for  the  room. 

Now  the  status  of  a  teacher  is  not  necessarily  a  factor 
in  class  management.  It  is,  however,  a  factor  when  the 
staff  is  regarded  as  a  whole  in  relation  to  the  habitual 
attendance  of  all  the  scholars  ;  for  the  grade  of  each 
member  of  the  staff  has  certain  numerical  values  asso- 
ciated with  it :  but  these  official  values  are  based  on 
generalisations  and  have  their  application  more  in  deter- 
mining the  sufficiency  of  the  staff  than  the  suitability  of  it, 
individually  considered.  The  organiser  must,  however, 
see  that  the  teacher  is  suitable  for  the  work  assigned  to  him, 
•and  on  this  condition  the  question  of  status  does  not  neces- 
sarily arise.  An  uncertificated  teacher  might  have  a  class 
of  50  or  60  scholars  and  a  certificated  teacher  a  class  of  35 
or  less,  provided  always  (a)  the  teacher  efficiently  fits  the 
class,  independently  of  status,  and  (6)  the  sum  of  the 
numerical  values  attached  to  each  teaching  unit  covers 
the  number  of  scholars  in  habitual  attendance  in  the  whole 
school.2  It  sometimes  happens  that  an  uncertificated 
teacher  has  more  effective  teaching  and  disciplinary  power 
than  a  particular  certificated  one.  The  organiser  can 
therefore  use  full  discretion  in  distributing  his  staff,  and 
still  satisfy  official  requirements.  The  status  of  the 
teacher  can  then  be  ignored,  within  reasonable  limits : 
it  would  be  obviously  unreasonable  to  place  a  student 
teacher  in  charge  of  the  first  class,  for  example. 

There   are,   however,    several   phases   to   this  question. 

1  Art.  12  {a),  Code  1910.  2  Aits.  10  and  12,  Code  1910. 


THE    CLASS.  69 

Take  the  common  instance  of  the  combination  of  two  or 
three  upper  classes  at  the  commencement  of  the  educational 
year,  rendered  necessary  by  re-organisation.  It  often 
happens  that  over  60  scholars — sometimes  over  70 — form 
one  class  under  a  certificated  teacher.  The  organiser  is 
aware  that  these  numbers  will  gradually  diminish,  bi  t 
in  the  meantime  the  position  must  be  met.  He  then  has 
two  courses  open  to  him — either  to  make  a  suitable  selec- 
tion from  the  pupils  covering  the  excess  and  make  separate 
provision  for  their  instruction,  or  to  give  the  teacher  such 
supplemental  aid  as  will  satisfy  the  Code.1 

The  New  York  regulation  deals  with  this  and  similar 
cases,  if  otherwise  incurable,  by  ti'ansferring  the  excess 
scholars  to  another  school.  This,  however,  has  not  proved 
satisfactory.  Another  method  of  dealing  with  these  con- 
stantly recurring  difficulties  and  especially  that  phase  of 
them  which  concerns  the  highest  classes  in  a  school,  which 
are  often  too  large  at  the  beginning  of  the  educational  year 
and  small  towards  the  close  of  it,  is  to  consider  each  room 
as  having  a  marginal  accommodation — that  is,  both  a  maxi- 
mum and  a  minimum  accommodation,  the  maximum  to  be 
recognised  only  as  an  expedient  to  meet  occasional  pressure. 
Of  course  the  laws  of  health  must  be  paramount  in  con- 
nection with  this  proposal.  The  maximum  would  have  to 
be  based  on  healthy  conditions,  whilst  the  accommodation 
of  the  department  would  remain  an  invariable  quantity 
founded  on  the  total  of  the  minimum  accommodation2  of 
each  room  in  it.     Probably  the  most  convenient  marginal 

1  Art.  14,  Code  1910.  "The  number  of  scholars  on  the  register  of 
any  class  or  group  of  classes  under  the  instruction  of  one  teacher 
must  not  exceed  60,  etc." 

2  This  would  prevent  technical  overcrowding,  which  is  a  con- 
stantly recurring  difficulty.  The  proposal  is  only  intended  to  meet 
the  temporary  needs  of  a  class  here  and  there. 


70  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

accommodation  would  be  one  in  the  ratio  of  four  to  five,  or 
one  additional  place  for  every  four  on  the  minimum  basis. 

As  there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  the  number 
of  pupils  in  a  class  and  the  accommodation  of  a  room 
or  the  status  of  a  teacher,  ever-recurring  difficulties  will 
arise  which  the  organiser  must  face  and  overcome  as 
best  he  can.  Even  the  official  limit  of  the  teaching  power 
assigned  to  a  teacher  is  not  always  a  safe  guide,  as  already 
shown.     The  personal  equation  must  be  considered  too. 

Of  these  elements  in  organisation,  the  organiser  is 
powerless  over  two,  except  in  so  far  as  he  may  have  a 
choice  of  assistants  of  varied  status  and  power.  He  must 
of  course  take  the  line  of  least  resistance  and  make  the 
class  fit  the  teacher,  and,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  room. 
It  is  essential  that  he  should  fit  the  teacher.  But  even 
when  this  has  been  done  at  the  commencement  of  the 
educational  year,  the  organiser's  troubles  are  not  ended 
in  this  direction.  Fresh  admissions,  especially  in  the 
lower  classes,  and  the  uneven  progress  of  groups  of  children 
in  the  various  classes  will  come  as  disturbing  factors. 
Wise  readjustments  must  therefore  be  occasionally 
made ;  and  these  will  be  rendered  all  the  more  easy  if 
terminal  or  half-yearly  promotions  are  carried  out,  on  each 
pupil's  merits. 

The  annual  courses  of  instruction  known  as  the  standards 
—theoretically  standards  of  examination  and  not  courses 
of  instruction — have  been  valuable  on  account  of  their 
well-known  character,  their  general  acceptance  and  appli- 
cation ;  but,  being  annual,  it  has  been  too  often  assumed 
that  promotions  ought  not  to  be  made  until  the  end  of  the 
year,  when,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  equality  of  attain- 
ments could  still  form  the  basis  for  a  new  organisation. 

The  rigidity  of  the  standards,  coupled  with  their  annual 
character,  has,  no  doubt,  been  partially  responsible  for  the 


THE    CLASS.  71 

unnecessary  retardation  of  many  scholars  and  the  want  of 
more  rapid  progress  of  children,  especially  those  above  the 
average  in  ability.  Now  that  standardisation  has  been 
officially  dropped,  except  for  certificates  of  proficiency,  pro- 
bably it  will  be  conceded  that  there  are  no  cardinal  virtues 
in  the  calendar  or  educational  year.  The  organiser  can 
now,  though  a  great  deal  of  freedom  has  previously  been 
given  by  the  Code,  so  arrange  his  courses  of  instruction  as 
to  meet  the  special  needs  of  his  pupils,  and  make  them 
as  pliable  and  adaptable  to  varying  circumstances  as 
possible.  It  is  not  necessary  under  existing  regulations 
that  the  courses  should  correspond  from  year  to  year,  pro- 
vided reasonable  grounds  can  be  shown  for  fresh  or  even 
radical  departures.  No  wise  teacher,  however,  would 
attempt  any  great  change  such  as  would  seriously  interfere 
with  the  due  correlation  of  studies. 

What  has  been  said  concerning  the  standards  equally 
applies  to  the  steps  or  grades  in  the  infant  school,  but  this 
matter  will  be  considered  later  when  the  subject  of  pro- 
motion is  discussed. 

Large  Classes. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that  large 
classes  are  to  be  regarded  only  as  an  unmixed  evil.  That 
such  classes  leave  much  to  be  desired  is  incontestable : 
but  they  have  some  advantages,  though  these  are  small 
compared  with  the  gains  on  the  other  side.  Sympathy  is 
a  potent  educational  force.  Sympathy  of  numbers,  spring- 
ing from  each  unit  in  a  mass  which  works  with  the  same 
aim  and  in  which  each  is  bound  to  the  other  by  ties  of 
class  fellowship,  makes  for  friendly  rivalry,  moral  strength, 
and  intellectual  zest.  The  larger  the  class,  within  certain 
limits,  the  greater  is  the  play  of  competing  forces.  The 
rousing  of  moral  power  sharpens  the  intellectual  appetite. 

Large  classes — and  under  this  head  may  be    included 


72  80HOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  grouping  of  classes  containing  scholars  of  different 
attainments ;  for  such  classes,  though  not  necessarily  large 
in  the  absolute  sense,  are  nevertheless  relatively  so — tend 
also  to  encourage  and  develop  individual  reliance  and 
resource.  If  there  is  a  real  danger  connected  with  some 
recent  educational  developments,  it  is  that  too  much  is 
being  done  for  the  scholars  by  the  teacher.  The  essence 
of  education  lies  in  the  scholars'  doing,  not  the  teacher's. 
Froebel's  motto  applies  to  the  pupil,  not  to  the  teacher. 
The  latter's  true  function  is  that  of  guide,  philosopher,  and 
friend — not  a  guide  who  always  leads  and  shows  the  way, 
except  by  moral  example,  but  a  guide  who  will  help  the 
pupil  to  find  the  right  path  chiefly  by  exciting  his  reason- 
ing power. 

The  sympathy  arising  from  numbers  acts  on  the  teacher 
as  well  as  on  the  scholars.  That  peculiar  unifying  moral 
tie  that  holds  an  able  teacher  to  his  class  is  alive  with 
emotional  currents  passing  from  him  to  the  pupils  and 
from  the  pupils  to  him  with  mutual  advantage.  They 
give  the  teacher  an  added  power,  and  often  enable  him  to 
transcend  himself. 

But  all  this  presupposes  a  strong  teacher.  In  the  hands 
of  a  teacher  of  mere  average  power,  or  of  a  weak  one,  the 
position  is  educationally  untenable.  This  must  not  therefore 
be  taken  as  a  psean  of  praise  to  large  classes.  It  is  merely 
an  attempt  to  show  the  best  side  of  a  weak  position.1 
The  advocacy  for  a  class  of  forty  pupils,  and  even  for  a 
smaller  number  in  the  upper  classes,  stands  unchallenged 
for  all  ordinary  purposes. 

On  the  other  hand  large  classes,  under  ordinary  con- 

1  "In  some  cases  it  may  even  be  said  that  an  insufficient  staff 
has  proved  a  blessing  in  disguise  because  the  teacher  has  had  no 
alternative  but  to  make  the  scholars  work  for  and  by  themselves." 
— Jieport  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1908-9,  p.  19. 


THE    CLASS.  73 


I 


litions,  present  enormous  difficulties  and  have  many  grave 
defects.  The  gravest  defect  is  the  remoteness  of  the 
individual — near  but  yet  far.  The  tendency  is  therefore 
for  him  to  become  submerged  in  the  crowd  and  to  be 
regarded  as  an  "average"  child,  and  hence  without  his 
own  peculiarities ;  and  it  is  precisely  those  peculiarities 
that  should  be  reckoned  with  in  the  educative  process.  It 
is  obvious  that  no  training  can  be  effective  which  is  not, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  based  on  individual  powers  and 
weaknesses.  Known  quantities  and  qualities  are  so  much 
more  easily  dealt  with  than  unknown  ones.  The  first 
condition  of  sound  training  is  knowledge  of  the  individual 
to  be  trained.  This  is  the  teacher's  side  of  the  position  : 
he  should  know  his  scholars  through  and  through.  There 
is  also  the  scholar's  side.  He  becomes  conscious  of  his 
remoteness  :  he  realises  that  he  is  not  understood,  that  he 
is  only  one  of  a  crowd,  and  thus  his  sense  of  personal 
responsil  >ility  to  the  class  and  school  is  not  likely  to  grow, 
and  possibly  it  may  be  weakened. 

There  are,  however,  cases  and  occasions  when  large 
classes  are  desirable  or  admissible.  A  vocal  music  class, 
for  example,  might  be  often  the  better  for  combining  two 
or  more  classes,  the  only  necessary  limitations  being 
physical  considerations  and  the  teacher's  ability  to  control 
and  instruct.  Lantern  lessons  also  sometimes  lend  them- 
selves to  bigger  classes  than  are  admissible  under  ordinary 
conditions.  The  preparation  class  is  another  example. 
This  is  a  device  practised  in  American  schools,  by  which 
the  central  hall  is  utilised  for  private  study.  This  is  done 
to  encourage  resource  and  independent  effort.  It  also 
economises  staff,  for  the  teachers  thus  employed  in  super- 
vision are  only  qualified  to  take  a  smaller  number  of 
pupils  under  ordinary  class  conditions.  The  recital  lessons 
take  place  in  the  adjoining  rooms,  as  seen  in  the  accom- 


74  SCHOOL    OKGANISATION. 

panying  plan.  This  is,  however,  only  economically 
practicable  in  buildings  adapted  to,  and  equipped  for,  the 
purpose. 

The  One-Teacher  or  Ungraded  School. — This  kind 
of  school  is  usually  found  in  thinly  populated  and  isolated 
districts,  the  teacher  being  unaided  except,  perhaps,  for 
needlework.  The  one  teacher,  therefore,  constitutes  both 
the  head  and  assistant  staff.  Monitors  for  mere  routine 
work,  however,  are  usually  employed.  Organisation,  under 
such  circumstances,  might  appear  to  reach  its  vanishing 
point :  but  in  reality  it  should  find,  in  a  limited  way,  its 
highest  development,  if  sound  efficiency  is  to  be  secured 
and  maintained. 

The  teacher  has  practically  to  solve  the  problem  of  being 
corporeally  in  two  or  more  places  at  the  same  time,  and 
also  to  impregnate  the  atmosphere  of  the  school  with  his 
spiritual  presence.  The  difficulties  of  the  position  are 
apparent,  especially  if,  as  sometimes  happens,  the  school 
consists  of  pupils  ranging  in  attainments  from  Standard  I. 
to  VI.  or  VII.,  or  occasionally  otherwise  complicated  by  the 
presence  of  infants,  when  the  sole  teacher  is  a  woman. 
Under  conditions  like  these  monitorial  or  some  kindred 
help  becomes  imperative,  but  such  help  must  not  take  the 
form  of  teaching.1 

The  question  of  the  unification  of  such  small  schools 
into  a  central  one,  or  their  absorption  into  existing  larger 
and  neighbouring  centres,  has  been  successfully  dealt  with 
in  some  countries.  Reasonable  distance  must,  of  course, 
be  a  factor  in  any  satisfactory  solution  of  the  difficulty, 
even  when  the  distance  is  covered  by  vehicles.  In 
America  this  plan  is  extensively  practised.     Canada,  too, 

1  See  Arts.  11  (/)  and  43  (e)  ;  also  Schedule  IV.  (21),  and  par.  13 
of  the  Pref.  Memorandum  to  Code,  1910. 


THE    CLASS. 


75 


Fig. 


10 


Plan  of  an  American  School,  showing  Study  Hall  and  Recitation  Rooms. 


76  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

has  recognised  its  utility,  and  is  developing  on  the  same 
lines. 

In  this  country,1  Devon,  Cornwall,  Gloucestershire,  and 
other  areas  bring  children  of  scattered  districts  to  school 
in  this  way.  The  attractions  of  a  ride,  combined  with 
protection  from  rain  and  other  inclemencies  of  the  weather, 
have  brought  about  a  better  attendance:  whilst  the 
advantages  of  instruction  in  a  large  school,  meeting  in  a 
healthy,  commodious  building,  possessing  a  stimulating 
esprit  de  corps,  and  permitting  an  organisation  on  a  basis 
of  sound  classification,  are  too  evident  to  be  named. 

Assuming,  however,  that  no  such  desirable  conveniences 
exist,  it  is  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  suggest 
a  satisfactory  classification  and  distribution  of  teaching 
power  for  small  schools  of  this  type,  especially  as  they 
vary  considerably  in  different  localities.  Probably  the 
best  organisation  would  be  secured  by  the  teacher  taking 
full  advantage  of  the  latitude  allowed  by  the  Code  in  the 
way  of  classification.  History,  geography,  grammar,  and 
other  class  subjects  should  be  taught,  as  a  rule,  in  not 
more  than  two  sections ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  subjects 
that  lend  themselves  to  individual  and  private  effort 
should  intervene  between  each  oral  lesson.  It  is  essential 
to  encourage  individual  study  to  the  utmost  extent.  It  is 
further  essential  for  the  teacher  to  regard  the  lessons  on 
the  "  class  subjects  "  as  one  of  the  chief  means  of  reach- 
ing each  pupil  in  the  matter  of  moral  and  intellectual 
training. 

Assuming  that  the  school  is  not  complicated  by  the 
presence  of  infants  and  it  contains  six  or  seven  grades  of 
scholars,  it  should  be  divided  into  two  divisions  for  pur- 
poses of  class  instruction,  the  lower  division  containing 
Standards  I.  to  III.  The  syllabuses  for  the  class  subjects 
1  See  Art.  by  J.  C.  Medd  in  School,  ii.  88. 


THE    CLASS.  77 

should  fit  these  two  sections,  composition  mainly  taking 
the  place  of  formal  grammar  in  the  lower  school.  A  three 
or  four  years'  course  must  be  designed  for  the  upper 
school  and  corresponding  provision  made  for  the  lower. 
It  is  necessary  for  each  year's  course  to  overlap  its 
successor  in  order  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  promoted 
scholars.  Indeed,  endless  adjustments,  after  the  syllabus 
has  been  drawn  up,  must  be  made  by  the  teacher  from 
time  to  time,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  all  scholars  in 
each  group  of  a  division. 

In  the  3  R's,  the  need  for  the  same  hind  of  divisional 
treatment  does  not  arise.  By  careful  preparation  of  work 
beforehand,  on  the  lines  of  the  attainments  of  each  group 
or  standard  in  a  division,  the  claims  of  each  pupil  could  be 
reasonably  met.  Since  the  work  under  this  head  depends 
almost  wholly  on  the  private  efforts  of  the  scholars,  the 
testing  of  what  has  been  accomplished  is,  of  course, 
essential ;  and  this  would  necessarily  have  to  be  done,  to 
some  extent,  after  school  hours,  which  terminate  at 
4.10  p.m.  for  this  purpose. 

In  order  to  insure  an  effective  distribution  of  the 
teacher's  time,  it  becomes  imperative,  while  one  section  or 
division  is  occupied  with  an  oral  lesson,  that  the  other 
should  be  engaged  in  private  study  ;  but  this  distribution 
cannot  be  always  absolute.  Suppose,  for  example,  that 
the  teacher  is  immediately  engaged  with  the  upper  section 
giving  a  lesson  on  geography,  while  the  lower  section  is 
employed  in  arithmetic,  the  work  having  been  definitely 
apportioned  to  each  group  therein ;  it  is  manifestly  de- 
sirable that  the  work  accomplished  in  arithmetic  should 
be  tested  without  undue  delay.  If  therefore  the  two 
simultaneous  lessons  cover  half  an  hour,  the  teacher  must 
devote  only  about  half  that  time  to  the  oral  lesson,  and 
give  the  remainder  of  the  time  to  checking  and  guiding 


78  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  work  in  the  lower  division,  while  the  upper  section  or 
school  continues  its  geographical  work  on  a  private  effort 
basis. 

This  arrangement  must  apply  generally;  though  in 
some  subjects,  e.g.  history  and  writing  (mechanical), 
grammar  and  composition  (written),  taken  respectively  by 
the  upper  and  lower  schools,  the  teacher  might  give  most 
of  the  time  to  the  oral  lesson,  testing  the  bulk  of  the 
private  effort  lesson  after  school  hours. 

It  is  further  desirable  that  all  books  and  other  necessary 
material  for  the  day's  work  should  be  given  to  each 
scholar  on  the  opening  of  the  school  in  the  morning. 
Besides  other  advantages,  this  involves  a  training  in  per- 
sonal responsibility.  Indeed,  in  a  one-teacher  school,  the 
fundamental  principles  underlying  group  self-government 
must  be  applied  if  the  school  is  to  work  on  easy  lines. 
Each  division  should  therefore  elect  its  own  captain, 
subject  to  the  veto  of  the  teacher,  the  senior  captain  be- 
coming the  head  of  the  school  and  mainly  responsible  for 
the  scholars'  good  behaviour,  while  each  would  see  that 
attentive  industry  in  private  study  was  in  operation  in  his 
own  section. 

Of  course  to  keep  a  school  of  this  kind  thoroughly 
going,  the  teacher  must  not  only  be  full  of  activity,  but  he 
must  be  continually  interesting  his  pupils  by  the  novelty  of 
new  methods,  bringing  into  play  fresh  ideas,  and  generally 
inspiring  them  with  energy  and  enthusiasm.  The  school 
library  should  be  in  active  circulation,  reaching  every 
pupil  and  every  home.  History  must  be  largely  dramatised 
and  appropriate  books  throwing  side  lights  on  the  subject 
read  in  school  or  at  home.  Geography  must  become  as 
realistic  as  possible.  A  whole  section  might  occasionally 
be  employed  in  designing  the  contour  of  a  country,  indi- 
cating its  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and  large   towns   by 


THE    CLASS.  79 

means  of  sand ;  groups  or  individuals  might  also  be 
similarly  engaged  with  modelling  in  clay,  or  constructing 
in  relief  with  moistened  brown  paper,  or  filling  in  contour 
maps  supplied  for  each  scholar's  use. 

A  useful  means  of  interesting  children  is  to  allocate  a 
corner  of  the  playground  to  instruction  in  geography.  A 
few  cart-loads  of  sand,  a  little  clay,  a  water  supply,  and 
some  simple  implements,  will  enable  scholars  to  learn 
more  of  physical  geography  in  an  hour  than  they  would 
otherwise  learn  in  months.  Pupils  should  be  further 
encouraged  to  collect  specimens  representing,  in  turns,  the 
chief  products  of  the  various  countries  under  study.1 
Nature  study  should  find  its  chief  expression  in  field  and 
forest  excursions,  notes  being  taken  and  rendered  into 
fuller  composition  exercises  later ;  and  arithmetic  should  be 
essentially  practical — scales,  measures,  and  materials  being 
in  constant  evidence  and  use  in  the  lower  division. 

But  whatever  is  done,  even  of  the  best,  something  must 
remain  to  be  desired  in  a  school  of  this  type.  Fortunately, 
it  is  gradually  disappearing  under  the  stress  of  the  more 
recent  official  regulations ;  and  schools  with  one  assistant 
teacher  or  with  one  or  more  pupil  or  student  teachers  are 
taking  their  place.  But  even  with  aids  like  these,  the 
principles  already  advocated  for  the  one-teacher  school 
must  equally  operate.  A  weekly  record  of  the  work  done 
in  each  division  should  be  kept  by  the  teacher. 

1  Collections  of  Colonial  and  Indian  products  may  be  obtained 
from  time  to  time  for  educational  purposes,  by  application  to  the 
Director  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  London,  8.W.  The  commercial 
resources  of  countries  within  the  British  Empire  may  also  be 
studied  in  the  public  galleries  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  where 
pictures,  photographs,  and  other  interesting  exhibits  may  be  seen. 
Arrangements  may  be  made  for  teachers  and  scholars  to  be  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  Institute's  staff,  when  some  guidance  or 
explanation  of  exhibits  is  deemed  necessary  or  advisable. 


80  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
children  up  to  eight  years  of  age  get  the  fullest  benefit  by 
attendance  at  school  both  mornings  and  afternoons. 
Intensive  work  in  the  mornings  and  comparative  freedom 
for  the  rest  of  the  day  would  probably  result  in  more 
good.  If  this  principle  were  applied,  the  work  of  the 
school  under  discussion  would  be  simplified,  and  the  older 
scholars  would  probably,  by  increased  attention,  be  able  to 
advance  more  rapidly  than  under  existing  conditions. 

The  Time  Tables  that  occupy  the  two  following  pages 
are  the  actual  working  arrangements  of  two  highly  suc- 
cessful schools  of  the  type  under  discussion.  The  Sum- 
mary below  refers  to  the  time-table  on  p.  82. 


Summary. 

Upper  Group. 

Lower  Group 

Scripture 

150 

150 

Arithmetic 

200 

210 

Reading 

150 

180 

English 

100 

240* 

Composition  (Written) 

90 

— 

Drill 

60 

60 

Repetition  and  Literature 

75 

75 

Drawing 

120 

60 

History 

80 

90 

Geography 

90 

90 

Writing  or  Transcription 

60 

120 

Singing 

7<) 

60 

Map  Drawing 

60 

— 

Object  Lessons 

60 

90 

Intervals 

125 

125 

1550  1550 

*  Oral  Composition  is  included.     Indeed  individual  oral  expression  is  cultivated 
in  all  possible  lessons. 


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82 


THE    CLASS.  83 

Iii  the  rural  schools  of  north-west  France  the  average 
number  of  pupils  in  a  school  with  a  single  unaided  teacher 
is  about  forty.  Soma  such  schools,  however,  have  higher 
numbers.  The  law  allows  an  additional  teacher  when  the 
number  of  pupils  exceeds  fifty.1 

The  Class  as  Unit  in  a  Department. — If  a  depart- 
ment is  to  advance  as  a  whole,  unity  of  educational  aim 
must  find  its  expression  in  each  class.  Consistent  method 
everywhere  is  essential  to  due  progress.  The  teacher 
should  be  attached  to  that  class  in  which  his  fullest 
powers  are  likely  to  be  displayed.  It  is  not  only  mere 
teaching  ability  that  has  to  be  weighed  in  this  connection, 
but  also  disciplinary  power,  grasp  of  knowledge,  and 
strength  of  personality.  In  other  words,  the  teacher 
should  fit  the  class  and  the  class  the  teacher. 

First,  the  teacher  should  fit  the  class  in  the  official 
sense,  that  is,  as  understood  by  the  Board  of  Education,- 
but  this  requirement,  as  explained,  is  more  technical  than 
real.  He  should  also  fit  the  class  in  the  sense  of  aptitude. 
It  often  happens  that  these  two  by  no  means  correspond. 
Officially,  a  class  numbering  sixty  scholars  is  suitable  for 
a  certificated  teacher.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  number 
is  too  high,  under  ordinary  conditions,  for  efficient  work. 
It  is  especially  too  high  for  the  upper  classes,  for  the 
lowest  class,  and  also  in  cases  in  which  two  or  more  grades 
of  scholars  are  grouped  to  form  one  class.  But  the  Board 
of  Education  regulation  does  not  differentiate  in  this  way, 
probably  because  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  make  rules 
that  will  equally  well  apply  to  various,  and  sometimes 
varying,  local  circumstances.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
forty  scholars  when  there   are  two   grades   or  standards 

1  See  "  Rural  Schools  of  N.W.  France."    Special  Reports.    Vol.  7. 
3  Art.  12,  Code  1910. 


84  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

together,  and  thirty  when  there  are  three,  should  be 
regarded  as  a  reasonable  number  for  one  certificated 
teacher.1 

It  almost  invariably  happens  that  a  class  has  several 
pupils  in  excess  or  short  of  the  number  that  can  be  allotted 
to  one  teacher.  In  case  of  excess,  it  is  necessary  to  draft 
the  extra  pupils  to  another  class,  or  to  give  the  teacher  in 
question  supplementary  aid  in  the  form  of  a  pupil  teacher, 
student  teacher,  or  an  uncertificated  or  certificated  assist- 
ant ;  or,  again,  a  sub-division  could  be  formed  for  which 
either  the  student-teacher  or  the  additional  assistant  could 
be  held  partially  or  wholly  responsible.  To  allow  teachers 
not  fully  qualified  to  be  solely  responsible  is  undesirable, 
not  only  on  educational  grounds,  but  because  it  throws  a 
specific  duty  on  the  head  to  be  in  continual  touch  with 
the  sub-division  for  purposes  of  direction  and  supervision, 
and  this  is  not  always  possible. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  deficiency  in  numbers  is  small, 
it  can  generally  be  neglected ;  and  if,  again,  the  excess  is 
small— one  or  two — it  may  be  left  out  of  consideration 2 : 
for  natural  adjustments  will  be  sure  to  come,  sooner  or 
later,  to  the  organiser's  assistance. 

The  class  being  formed,  other  difficulties  arise  in  the 
admission  of  new  pupils  and  in  the  varying  rates  of 
progress.  New  pupils  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  retard  a 
class  unless  the  number  of  admissions  is  abnormally  large 
and  unavoidable.  The  thoughtful  teacher  will  find  the 
means  of  giving  a  few  fresh  scholars  odds  and  ends  of 
attention,  which  will  in  some  measure  compensate  them 
for  lost  ground,  without  allowing  the  majority  of  the  class 
to  suffer.  Admissions,  however,  are  necessarily  a  slightly 
disturbing  element,  and  the  question  arises  whether  it  is 

1  But  see  Art.  14,  Code  1910.  2  Ibid. 


THE    CLASS.  85 

not  desirable  to  place  some  restrictions  upon  them,  espe- 
cially when  the  proposed  change  of  school  is  due  to  caprice. 
This  is  done  in  many  secondary  schools.  In  Berlin  and 
some  parts  of  the  United  States  admissions  are  only 
allowed  twice  a  year.  In  the  interests  of  migratory 
scholars  themselves  some  restrictive  rule  is  eminently 
desirable.  The  head  teachers,  with  a  recognised  system 
of  professional  etiquette,  might  do  much  to  mitigate  the 
evil. 

The  other  disturbing  element,  viz.  the  varying  rate  of 
progress,  is  the  more  difficult  to  deal  with,  considering  the 
class  as  a  whole.  The  normal  rate  in  elementary  schools  is 
generally  taken  to  correspond  to  the  annual  courses  pre- 
scribed by  the  standards  for  scholars  ranging  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  fourteen.  It  has  been  assumed  that  the 
average  scholar  could  take  these  yearly  steps,  commencing 
with  Standard  I.,  at  about  six  and  a-half  years,  without 
undue  pressure,  and  that  those  who  fall  behind  would  be 
counterbalanced  in  number  by  others  above  the  average 
in  ability,  and  therefore  presumably  capable  of  advancing 
more  rapidly  than  the  ordinary  child.  This  assumption 
is  not  consonant  with  facts  so  far  as  some  great  areas  are 
concerned,  for  the  number  of  scholars  who  fall  behind 
greatly  outnumber  those  whose  advance  is  beyond  that  of 
the  yearly  steps.  Of  course,  this  raises  a  question  not  only 
of  national,  but  universal  interest.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
considered  here. 

It  is  enough  to  sav  that  what  was  hitherto  regarded 
as  a  normal  rate  of  progress  has  not  been  realised,  and 
therefore  it  is  as  well  to  note  that  the  limitations  of  the 
"  normal  rate  "  have  not  yet  been  fixed.  But  there  seems 
to  be  little  doubt  that  under  the  svstem  which  has  been 
rampant  in  the  recent  past,  and  is  still  strongly  in  evidence 
in  many  county  areas,  the  needs  of  the  brighter  scholars 


86  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

have  been  sacrificed,  to  a  great  extent,  either  to  the  fetish 
of  class  advancement  in  unbroken  line,  or  to  the  suscepti- 
bilities of  class  teachers,  who  sometimes  regard  terminal  and 
occasional  promotions  as  a  serious  break  in  the  progress  of 
their  work.     Each  attitude  deserves  condemnation. 

Departures  from  the  normal  are,  of  course,  inevitable. 
Percentages  on  this  point  in  one  district  will  not  necessarily 
correspond  with  those  in  another,  because  operating  causes 
might  be  vastly  different.  The  teacher,  therefore,  must 
not  assume  that  what  is  possible  in  one  county  is  equally 
possible  in  another.  Over-pressure  is,  perhaps,  more 
deadly  than  sluggish  work.  The  means  everywhere  must 
not  only  be  adjusted  to  the  ends,  but  also  to  the  individual: 
and  in  this  respect  the  class  teacher  has  shallows  and  depths 
to  sound  which  must  tax  all  his  judgment,  patience,  and 
energy  if  real  success  is  to  attend  his  efforts.  No  faith 
ought  to  be  placed  in  rules  formed  a  priori  in  dealing  with 
this  question.1 

The  head  teacher  must  be  prepared  to  find  considerable 
divergence  in  the  rate  of  progress  of  the  scholars.  The 
class  teacher  will  find  it  necessary  to  adapt  his  pace  to 
the  class  as  a  whole,  and  to  see  that  every  child  advances 
in  conformity  with  his  general  ability  and  his  aptitude  for 
study  in  any  special  direction. 

Promotion. — The  class  has  necessarily  to  be  remodelled 
once  in  twelve  months,  that  is  at  the  end  of  the  educational 
year.     All  or  the  great  majority  of  the  scholars  are  then 

1  In  London  Provided  Schools  for  the  year  ending  Lady  Day,  1904, 
there  were  in  boys',  girls',  and  mixed  departments  27  per  cent,  of  the 
scholars  in  the  normal  stage,  7  per  cent,  above  the  normal,  and 
about  65  per  cent,  below  it.  These  percentages  are  based  on  the 
assumption  that  every  child  commences  the  work  of  Standard  I. 
at  six  and  a-half  years.  So  that  what  was  regarded  as  normal 
a  priori  was  not  found  to  be  so  in  practice. 


THE    CLASS.  87 

promoted  to  a  higher  class.  A  few  perhaps  have  not 
advanced  sufficiently  to  secure  promotion  at  once.  In 
many  schools  it  is  found  practicable  to  promote  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  scholars  at  the  end  of  each  of 
the  two  or  three  terms  into  which  the  educational  year  is 
divided.  Such  promotion  is  usually  carried  out  on  the 
basis  of  examination.  This,  however,  is  not  a  necessity. 
Promotion  could  be  as  efficiently  brought  about  by  the 
record  of  a  term's  individual  work,  supplemented,  if  con- 
sidered desirable,  by  examination  in  one  or  more  subjects. 

Most  elementary  schools  have  carried  out  their  promo- 
tions annually.  It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to  accept 
this  practice  as  a  safe  and  proper  guide.  Indeed,  under 
the  existing  freedom  of  classification  allowed  to  teachers, 
it  ought  not  to  be  rigidly  applied  to  any  school.  There 
are  now,  happily,  signs  of  awakening  in  many  areas.  A 
judicious  combination  of  both  yearly  and  term  promo- 
tions is  undoubtedly  the  best.  A  clever  child  who  has 
reasonably  well  mastered  the  major  part  of  the  work  of 
a  class  in  four  or  six  months  ought  not  to  be  compelled 
to  repeat  that  work  ad  nauseam  to  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  effect  of  retention  in  the  same  class,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, is  mischievous  in  the  extreme ;  for  the  child 
loses  interest,  the  mainspring  of  attention  and  industry, 
and  discontent  and  tedium  result.  The  effects  produced 
bv  this  means  often  cling  to  a  scholar  for  the  rest  of  his 
school  life. 

The  chief  objections  urged  against  term  promotions  are 
(1)  interruption  to  a  steady  and  continuous  year's  work  of 
the  class  teacher,  (2)  the  doubtful  advantage  of  promoting 
a  child  into  a  class  that  has  already  completed  about  one- 
half  of  the  year's  course,  and  (3)  the  dislike  of  the  class 
teacher  to  have  the  best  pupils  removed.  These  are  of 
minor  importance,  if  they  carry  any  weight  at  all,  com- 


88  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

pared  with  the  deleterious  influence  on  the  child  who  is 
not  allowed  to  go  forward  when  he  is  reasonably  fit  to  do 
so.  Of  these  three  objections  the  first  is  more  imaginary 
than  real ;  the  second  is  apparently  strong  at  first  sight, 
but  it  is  really  not  so,  for  the  work  can  be  easily  arranged 
on  a  terminal  or  half-yearly  basis  instead  of  on  an  annual 
one :  besides,  the  clever  child  is  found  in  practice  to  be 
able  ultimately  to  overtake  his  class-fellows  without  undue 
strain ;  the  third  is  admittedly  disheartening  to  the  teacher 
who  takes  a  wrong-headed  view  of  the  position. 

The  errors  of  the  past,  and  to  a  great  extent  of  the 
present,  are  due  to  a  very  restricted  vision.  The  form  of 
curriculum  has  stood  near,  towered  to  the  sky,  and  partially 
shut  out  the  light  of  day,  and  the  end  has  been  taken  for 
the  means.  Training  has  thus  been  eclipsed — the  process 
that  should  be  the  alpha  and  omega  of  school  work.  If 
teachers  and  others  had  always  accepted  the  curriculum  as 
a  mere  instrument,  to  be  used  and  adjusted  to  compara- 
tively remote  ends,  there  would  have  been  no  serious 
divergence  from  the  true  path. 

Again,  if  the  smartest  children  are  promoted  to  a  higher 
class,  equally  intelligent  scholars  are  promoted  from  a  lower 
class  to  take  their  place — assuming,  of  course,  that  term 
promotions  are  general  for  the  school — and  though  these 
cannot  have  the  same  attainments,  yet  they  will,  by  natural 
ability,  ever  prevent  the  class  becoming  dull ;  and  the  class 
teacher  should  remember  that  it  is  his  first  duty  to  serve 
the  best  interests  of  his  scholars,  and  should  therefore  sub- 
ordinate himself  to  that  duty.  And  he  should  further 
bear  in  mind  a  simple  law — energy  will  escape,  will  dis- 
charge itself  sooner  or  later.  If  blocked  by  any  barrier, 
arbitrary  or  not,  t\ie  impeded  force  will  find  an  outlet 
elsewhere,  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance,  and  possibly 
therefore  into  undesirable  channels.      So  it  is  with   the 


THE    CLASS.  89 

pupil  who  is  unnecessarily  retained  in  a  class  when  fit  to 
go  forward. 

He  needs  a  further  field  for  his  activities :  his  mental 
and  emotional  battery  is  at  the  discharging  point;  and  if 
resistance  is  not  removed  there  must  be  an  outbreak,  perhaps 
in  unexpected  quarters,  or  some  injury  may  result  to  the 
pupil  himself.  Arrested  development  is  not  an  uncommon 
complaint,  and  this  is  usually  associated  with  those  who 
fail  to  get  the  proper  stimuli  at  the  right  time. 

These  remarks  apply,  with  some  slight  modifications,  to 
the  ordinary  retarded  scholar.  At  the  end  of  the  educa- 
tional year  every  child  in  a  class  should  be  promoted, 
notwithstanding  terminal  advancement,  unless  there  is 
overwhelming  evidence  to  support  retardation.  Generally 
speaking,  nothing  in  school  life  is  so  demoralising  and  so 
deadening  to  the  faculties  as  retention  of  a  scholar  in  the 
same  class  for  two  or  more  years.  Interest  almost 
vanishes,  and  self-respect  and  self-reliance  become  less 
and  less  acute,  under  such  circumstances  :  and  this  posi- 
tion becomes  all  the  more  pronounced  if  the  scholar  is 
already  old  for  his  standard  or  class.  "  Hope  deferred 
maketh  the  heart  sick  "  has  just  as  keen  an  application 
to  the  child  as  the  man.  If,  however,  there  should  be 
strong  reasons  for  retardation,  then  the  scholar  should 
be  encouraged  to  improve  by  the  prospect  of  promotion 
at  the  end  of  three  or  six  more  months,  or  even  at  an 
earlier  period. 

As  already  stated,  a  judicious  combination  of  both  yearly 
and  term  promotions  appears  to  be  the  best.  In  order, 
however,  to  carry  out  this  effectively,  some  changes  in  the 
courses  of  instruction  are  necessary.  The  steps  known  as 
the  standards  are  based  upon  a  year's  work  for  the  ordinary 
child.  The  plan  commonly  adopted  by  the  organiser  is  so 
to  arrange  the  lessons  that  these  steps  or  courses  can  be 


90  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

completed  in  about  eight  or  nine  months,  the  remaining 
period  of  the  year  being  spent  in  traversing  the  ground 
already  covered,  laying  special  stress  on  material  points, 
making  additions  and  emendations,  and  generally  putting 
upon  the  whole  work  its  finishing  touches 

This  plan  cannot  be  recommended  :  it  bristles  with 
defects.  The  organisation  of  a  school  should  not  be  rigid, 
but  kept  to  some  extent  in  a  fluid  state.  There  are  at 
least  two  better  courses  to  adopt,  either  of  which,  according 
to  circumstances,  will  be  found  to  be  a  sound  working  basis. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  suggested  that  the  educational 
year  be  divided  into  two  terms,  each  of  six  months'  dura- 
tion ;  and  that  the  standard  courses  be  divided  into  two 
parts  in  the  ratio  of  about  2  to  1,  or,  perhaps  better  still, 
5  to  2,  the  larger  portion  of  the  course  being  taken  in  the 
first  six  months,1  and  the  smaller  during  the  second 
together  with  such  essential  parts  of  the  first  term  course 
as  would  make  a  reasonably  graduated  syllabus  suited  to 
the  child  a  little  above  the  average  in  ability,  or  with 
unusual  powers  of  application.  This  arrangement,  it  is 
thought,  would  meet  the  needs  of  the  ordinary  scholar  in 
the  way  of  recapitulation,  and  would  place  the  child  drafted 
at  the  close  of  the  first  six  months  in  a  position  nearly 
equal  to  the  one  possessed  by  the  ordinary  scholar  at  the 
commencement  of  the  educational  year,  so  far  as  the 
graduated  syllabus  is  concerned.2 

This  would  cure  the  defect,  under  some  existing  prac- 
tices, of  promoting  children  at  the  end  of  six  months  to  a 
class  that  has  already  done  two-thirds  of  the  year's  work, 
and  is  at  the  point  of  commencing  the  other  third.  The 
promoted  pupil  has  then  to  take  up  the  course  at  a  point 

1  It  would  be  well  to  complete  the  Arithmetic  course  during  the 
first  term. 

2  Generally  term  syllabuses,  and  not  annual  ones,  should  be  applied, 


TIIE    CLASS.  91 

in  which  some  knowledge  of  what  has  been  taught  in  the 
first  half  of  the  year  is,  if  not  essential,  at  least  desirable 
to  ensure  satisfactory  progress. 

Even  with  the  suggested  two-term  courses  in  operation, 
it  would  still  be  necessary  to  make  the  majority  of  the  pro- 
motions at  the  close  of  the  educational  year ;  but  the  gain 
in  being  able  fittingly  to  promote,  at  an  earlier  period,  even 
a  small  percentage  of  the  scholars,  would  be  very  great 
indeed. 

Nothing  said  here  is  intended  to  encourage  premature 
advancement  of  the  child,  which  only  leads  to  disastrous 
results  in  later  life.  A  scholar's  school  career  should  be 
one  of  happiness,  in  which,  however,  intensive  work  should 
play  an  important  part ;  and  happiness  is  not  consistent 
with  either  physical  or  mental  strain.  Only  those  children 
should  therefore  be  promoted  earlier  than  usual  who  can, 
without  undue  exertion,  keep  pace  with  the  work.  An  ill- 
nourished  child,1  for  example,  although  possessed  of  more 
than  ordinary  mental  activity  and  power,  ought  rather  to 
have  its  activities  restrained  than  stimulated :  and  pre- 
cocious children  generally  need  careful  vigilance  to  see 
they  do  not  overtax  their  strength.  The  ivhole  child  is  put 
into  the  teacher's  keeping. 

The  Educational  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago2 
has  recommended,  inter  alia,  "  That  the  course  of  study  be 
so  adjusted  as  readily  to  permit  of  at  least  semi-annual 
promotion  from  grade  to  grade." 

Again,  Section  247  of  the  Eules  and  Regulations  of  the 
Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Boston  reads  :  "  The  regular 
promotion  of  pupils  from  grade  to  grade  shall  be  made  in 

1  The  Central  Oare  Committee,  working  under  the  L.C.C.,  watch 
over  and  provide  for  the  immediate  needs  of  all  ill-nourished  and 
delicate  children. 

2  See  Report  1900.     "  Grade  "  roughly  corresponds  to  ' '  standard. " 


92  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

September  and  February.  Promotion  of  individual  pupils 
may  be  made  at  any  time  by  the  Principal  of  the  district 
with  the  approval  of  the  Supervisor  in  charge." 

Age  and  Classification. — -Something  must  be  said 
concerning  the  bearing  of  age  on  classification  and  pro- 
motion. As  a  rule  moral  and  intellectual  power  in  a  child 
up  to  the  age  of  seven  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
number  of  its  years.  Age,  therefore,  ought  to  be  and  is  a 
factor  in  classification  and  promotion  in  infant  schools.  It 
sometimes  happens,  however,  that  a  scholar  of  twelve  years 
is  duller  than  a  child  of  seven. 

(1)  Backward  Scholars — Promotion. — Generally  children 
who  are  old  for  their  class  or  standard  have  less  ability 
than  their  fellows,  assuming,  of  course,  that  a  proper 
system  of  promotion  has  been  in  operation  and  that  the 
backward  pupils  have  had  the  benefit  of  ordinary  educa- 
tional facilities.  Such  children,  by  constant  association 
with  others"  so  much  younger  than  themselves,  tend  to  lose 
their  self-respect,  and  thus  become  an  obstacle  to  good 
discipline.  They  show  this  in  many  ways  :  there  is  a  lack 
of  industry,  of  interest,  of  tone,  and,  on  the  positive  side, 
a  decided  tendency  to  be  mischievous  and  troublesome. 

Hence  everything  should  be  done  to  rouse  them  to  a 
proper  sense  of  personal  responsibility  ;  and  this  can 
probably  be  best  effected  by  promotion,  within  reasonable 
limits,  to  that  class  with  which  pupils  of  approximately 
equal  ages  are  associated.  Although  such  children  will 
not  fit  the  class  in  attainments,  yet  it  will  be  generally 
found  that  they  will  learn,  and  improve,  in  other  respects, 
at  a  comparatively  greater  rate  than  if  associated  with 
children  much  younger  than  themselves. 

This  has  been  found  in  many  instances  to  work  extremely 
well  in  practice ;  and  it  has  a  special  application  in  the 


THE    CLASS.  93 

case  of  those  who  are,  say,  within  six  mouths  of  leaving 
school  altogether.  If  they  fail  to  be  brought  into  teaching 
and  close  social  contact  with  one  of  the  two  highest  classes 
in  the  school,  their  school  life  ends  without  even  the  sense, 
much  less  the  acquisition,  of  that  fine  tone  and  moral 
responsibility  that  invariably  characterise  the  two  upper 
classes  in  any  really  good  educational  establishment.  If, 
therefore,  children  of  this  type  are  not  hopelessly  remote, 
in  attainments  and  mental  grasp,  from  those  of  the  upper 
classes,  it  is  eminently  desirable  that  they  should  be  in 
close  touch  with  those  classes,  if  only  intermittently,  in 
such  occasional  lessons  as  are  given  in  history,  geography, 
Scripture,  literature,  and  other  subjects  that  lend  them- 
selves to  oral  instruction. 

(2)  The  Ungraded  Glass. — A  special  class  for  backward 
scholars — an  ungraded  or  remove  class — has  been  found 
very  effective.  This  plan,  however,  is  impracticable  in 
some  buildings,  because  of  the  limited  number  of  rooms 
available :  and  it  most  often  involves,  too,  the  employ- 
ment of  an  additional  teacher.  Generally  speaking,  the 
grouping  of  dull  children  for  purposes  of  instruction  is  a 
bad  practice.  The  justification,  however,  for  such  group- 
ing lies  (1)  in  its  being  a  temporary  expedient,  (2)  in  the 
special  method  of  teaching  adopted,  (3)  in  the  small 
number  of  scholars  forming  the  class — not,  as  a  rule,  more 
than  twenty  to  thirty — and  the  consequent  ability  of  the 
teacher  to  give  a  greater  amount  of  individual  attention 
than  is  possible  under  ordinary  class  conditions,  and  (4)  in 
its  efficacy  in  attaining  the  special  end  in  view. 

In  some  large  departments  an  intermediate  class  con- 
sisting of  backward  children  has  proved  very  successful, 
the  course  of  instruction  ranging  between  Standards  III. 
and  IV.,  and  all  the  teaching  being  essentially  of  a  practical 
nature.     Arithmetic  is  based  on  shopping,  with  scales  and 


94  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

measures  ;  history  largely  011  dramatisation  ;  geography 
oil  modelling  in  clay  and  plasticine,  and  on  visits  to  various 
places  ;  and  handwork  of  various  kinds  plays  an  important 
part.  Educational  excursions,  as  encouraged  by  the  Code, 
are  also  largely  used. 

(3)  Promotion  on  a  One-subject  Basis. — A  third  success- 
ful method  of  appeal  to  the  backward  scholar  lies  in 
discovering  his  strong  point  as  well  as  his  weak  ones.  It 
frequently  happens  that  a  dullard  has  a  bias — possibly 
a  gift — in  a  certain  direction.  Develop  that  line  for  all 
it  is  worth  ;  promote  within  that  limit,  to  the  highest  cla&s 
or  place,  and  he  will  discover  his  balance  and  responsi- 
bility. Self-respect  will  be  restored  in  glorified  form ;  and 
he  will  realise  the  possibilities  of  advance  in  other  channels, 
having  at  least  one  high  or  comparatively  high  standard. 
All  are  acquainted  with  the  energising  influence  of  a 
fresh  consciousness  of  power,  even  if  that  power  lies  within 
a  small  compass.  Depths  may  be  sounded  by  it  that  have 
never  been  touched  before :  and  out  of  them  may  not  un- 
reasonably come,  in  time,  an  awakening  force  and  a  conse- 
quent development,  that  must  broaden  the  avenues  of  life, 
ultimately  confer  an  intellectual  grasp  of  new  realms,  and 
thereby  open  a  wider  field  for  mental  activity.  A  scholar 
might,  therefore,  be  in  the  highest  class  for,  say,  drawing 
and  in  an  intermediate  or  lower  class  still  for  other 
subjects. 

The  Highest  Class.— In  the  highest  class  a  phenomenon 
commonly  arises  which  is  very  dispiriting  to  the  teacher. 
As  the  scholars  reach  the  age  limit  that  cancels  the  legal 
obligation  to  attend  school,  they  mostly  avail  themselves  of 
the  supposed  freedom  thus  offered.  This  is  especially  the 
case  in  the  poorer  districts.  The  class,  probably  large  at 
the    comniencement   of    the   educational   year,    gradually 


THE    CLASS.  95 

dwindles  until  towards  the  close  of  that  year  there  is  only 
a  mere  remnant  left.  If  the  staffing  arrangements  permit, 
it  is  best  not  to  disturb  the  organisation,  notwithstanding 
this  quasi-hour-glass  phenomenon.  Sometimes,  however, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  blend  such  a  remnant  class  with 
another  of  similar  character,  with  the  result  that  a  further 
loss  of  scholars  ensues,  besides  a  break  in  the  continuity  of 
the  work  and  the  necessity  for  some  readjustments  of  the 
courses  of  instruction  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  newly-com- 
bined class.  The  highest  class,  indeed,  is  often  a  most 
trying  one  on  account  of  this  leakage.  One  good  pupil 
follows  another  into  the  world — the  poor  ones  mostly 
remain,  to  justify  the  Scriptures — in  a  way  that  is  most 
disheartening  to  the  class  teacher,  who  is  naturally  anxious 
that  every  scholar  should  have  the  full  benefit  of  the  school's 
highest  course  of  instruction. 

This  leakage  is  educational  waste — both  an  individual 
and  a  national  loss,  added  to  the  dispiriting  influence  which 
the  disintegrating  process  has  upon  all  around.  A  keener 
public  spirit  in  educational  matters,  and  particularly  a 
greater  appreciation  of  the  value  of  education  on  the  part  of 
the  scholars'  parents,  would  do  much,  in  the  absence  of  legis- 
lation on  the  point,  to  mitigate  this  evil.  In  Berlin,1  where 
the  legal  upward  age  limit  is  the  same  as  in  this  country, 
pupils  who  reach  the  age  of  fourteen  during  the  educational 
year  are  not  permitted  to  leave  school  until  the  expiry  of 
that  year.  Thus  the  gradual  breaking-up  of  the  highest 
class  is  non-existent  there. 

Specialisation. — Previous  discussion  has  shown  how 
desirable  it  is  that  the  class  should  fit  the  teacher,  espe- 
cially in  respect  of  the  upward  limit  of  numbers.     It  does 

1  See  Report  of  Mr.  G.  Andrew  to  the  Scottish  Education  Depart- 
ment, 190  L 


96  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

not  follow  from  this  condition  that  the  teacher  will  lit  the 
class.  As  in  the  industrial  world  the  division  of  labour  is 
found  to  be  efficacious  and  specialisation  valuable,  so  in 
school  life  there  is  a  growing  tendency  towards  specialisa- 
tion in  teaching.  But  before  proceeding  to  discuss  this 
developing  feature  of  school  work,  there  are  one  or  two 
points  of  general  interest  concerning  the  fitting  of  the 
teacher  to  the  class,  which  will  form  an  appropriate  intro- 
duction. 

The  organisation  being  settled  on  the  basis  of  fitting  the 
class  to  the  teacher,  it  seems  a  simple  matter,  assuming 
there  is  no  great  variation  in  the  numbers,  to  allow  the 
teacher  to  follow  his  class  as  it  rises  higher  and  higher  in 
the  school.  This  plan  of  rotation  finds  its  partial  justifi- 
cation in  the  intimate  knowledge  which  a  teacher  gains  of 
his  pupils  ;  in  the  deeper  interest  he  is  likely  to  take  in 
them  through  long  association ;  and  in  the  fixed  moral 
impress  he  could  impose,  assisted  by  length  of  time.  This 
principle  of  rotation,  however,  is  not  sound  in  general 
application.  Applied  exceptionally,  that  is,  in  cases  where 
the  teacher  is  strong  in  moral  fibre,  in  tact,  and  in  disci- 
plinary power,  it  has  many  advantages.  Generally  it  is 
open  to  the  following  objections  : — 

(1)  The  pupils'  outlook  is  liable  to  become  narrowed, 
they  being  only  brought  into  teaching  contact  with  one 
mind.  (2)  Although  not  equally  capable  of  managing 
with  thorough  efficiency  every  class  in  a  school,  some 
teachers  can  manage  the  lower  classes  well,  and  the  upper 
ones  but  indifferently.  (3)  The  effect  of  a  weak  or  in- 
different teacher  following  his  pupils  throughout  their 
school  career  would  probably  be  disastrous  to  most  of 
them.  (4)  The  moral  impress  of  a  particular  class  teacher, 
though  important,  is  certainly  not  the  dominant  one  in  a 
good  school.     Moral  effect  should  rather  depend  on  the 


THE    CLASS.  97 

sum  of  the  good  influences  that  converge  upon  a  school  in 
its  entirety. 

In  some  parts  of  the  ordinary  school  work  it  is  evident 
that  special  aptitudes  on  the  one  side  and  special  ability  on 
the  other  are  desirable  in  the  staff,  since  they  make  for  the 
highest  efficiency.  The  powers  and  temperaments  asso- 
ciated with  a  teacher  of  an  infant  school,  for  example,  are 
not  necessarily  those  required  for  the  due  instruction  and 
governance  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  senior  departments, 
many  of  whom  are  in  the  pubescent  period. 

The  division  of  most  elementary  schools  into  boys',  girls', 
and  infants'  departments  has  roughly  differentiated  the 
teachers  on  the  same  lines.  But  teachers  in  the  same 
department  will,  of  course,  be  found  to  display  differences 
in  moral  and  intellectual  force,  differences  in  power  of 
insight  into  character,  differences  in  taste,  temperament, 
and  degree  of  knowledge,  which  the  organiser  must  care- 
fully consider  before  assigning  to  each  a  place.  His  chief 
aim  would  naturally  be  to  put  each  teaching  unit  in  that 
position  in  which  it  will  be  able  to  perform  the  most 
effective  work. 

But  there  are  also  other  matters  connected  with  this, 
to  which  wisdom  should  direct  attention.  Some  variety 
of  work  is  almost  as  essential  to  the  teacher  as  the 
scholar.  The  interest  of  the  teacher  should  not  be  lessened 
by  keeping  him  year  after  year  to  the  same  standard  or 
class,  except  it  be  to  the  highest  class,  for  which  often  one 
member  of  the  staff  is  specially  fitted.  A  teacher's  career 
might  be  seriously  affected,  and  his  usefulness  not  ade- 
quately applied,  by  a  cabined  experience.  Some  men 
and  women,  indeed,  though  ostensibly  unsuitable  for  a 
particular  class,  will  rise  to  the  occasion  in  a  most  extra- 
ordinary way,  if  put  to  the  test.  Experiment  therefore 
with  the  staff  is  allowable,  within  proper  limitations, 
s.  o.  9 


98  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

especially  when  variety  of  work  is  deemed  necessary  or 
desirable. 

Of  course,  cases  will  arise  in  which  it  becomes  almost 
imperative  to  allocate  particular  classes  or  particular  sub- 
jects to  certain  masters  or  mistresses  specially  qualified  to 
deal  with  them.  A  point  is  reached  in  some  subjects  when 
it  becomes  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  have  a  special 
knowledge,  and  sometimes  a  special  aptitude  joined  thereto, 
beyond  the  general  courses  of  instruction  included  in  the 
Government  Certificate  Syllabus. 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  practical  science,  art, 
manual  training  in  wood  and  metal,  domestic  subjects 
(cookery,  laundry,  housewifery),  and  modern  languages. 
The  means  employed  in  giving  instruction  in  all  these 
subjects,  except  the  last,  demand  that  not  more  than  about 
twenty  pupils1  be  allowed  in  one  class.  Practical  science 
is  taught  in  many  educational  areas  by  specialists,  and  in 
well  equipped  rooms  designed  for  the  purpose,  in  which 
every  pupil  has  sufficient  space  and  apparatus  for  inde- 
pendent experiment.  Sometimes,  however,  the  pupils  work 
in  twos — a  practice  that  has  much  to  commend  it. 
Advanced  drawing  instruction  is  given  under  similar  con- 

1  In  the  L.C.C.  schools  the  number  of  scholars  per  teacher  is 
limited  to  18  in  cookery,  laundry,  housewifery,  and  combined 
domestic  subjects ;  20  in  woodwork,  16  in  metal  work.  These 
numbers  are  practically  the  same  as  those  recognised  by  the  Board 
of  Education,  except  that  the  size  of  the  room  occasionally  makes 
it  necessary  to  have  a  slightly  smaller  roll  for  the  one  teacher.  For 
instruction  in  art,  the  general  tendency  has  been  to  limit  the 
number  to  25.  Most  of  the  art  rooms  accommodate  from  25  to  30. 
Similarly  the  practical  science  rooms  generally  accommodate  about 
24  pupils.  The  Board  of  Education,  in  a  letter  dated  Dec.  11, 
1901,  stated  that  a  class  for  practical  science  should  not  exceed  25, 
unless  a  second  teacher  is  employed.  This  letter  applied  to  a 
higher  elementary  school. 


THE    CLASS.  99 

ditions  in  art  rooms,  which  are  sometimes  used  as  centres 
by  scholars  of  neighbouring  schools  :  whilst  instruction  in 
wood  and  metal  work  and  in  the  domestic  arts  is  carried 
on  wholly  at  specially  equipped  centres,  each  batch  of 
scholars  attending,  as  a  rule,  one  session  a  week  for  each 
subject. 

In  all  these  subjects  the  skill  of  the  specialist,  the 
suitably  equipped  room,  and  individual  instruction  are 
generally  recognised  to  be  necessary.  It  would  be  imprac- 
ticable, even  if  the  regular  class  teacher  possessed  the 
special  knowledge,  for  him  to  direct  and  supervise  this 
practical  work ;  for  the  numbers  which  form  such  classes 
are  probably  small  compared  with  the  ordinary  class  of 
which  he  is  in  daily  charge.  It  must  be  noticed  in  connec- 
tion with  this  that  the  dual  demand  for  small  classes  and 
specialised  teaching  applies  mostly  to  the  older  scholars  in 
the  school,  usually  those  from  12  years  of  age  upwards.1 

The  importance  of  practical  work  in  education  cannot 
be  overestimated.  It  has  been  well  said  by  a  distinguished 
American  that  "  the  hand  is  the  projected  brain,"  for 
knowledge  acquired  by  its  means  becomes  a  living  thing. 

In  lieu  of  girls'  attendance  at  the  domestic  training 
centres  one  session  a  week  for  each  subject  they  are  study- 
ing there,  which  causes  uncomfortable  breaks  in  their 
ordinary  school  work,  it  would  probably  be  better  if  each 
girl  devoted  the  last  six  or  twelve  months  of  her  school  life 
exclusively  to  training  in  the  domestic  arts.  There  are, 
however,  many  administrative  difficulties  to  surmount 
before  this  plan  can  be  successfully  applied.     The  general 

1  In  the  "special"  schools  (for  mentally  or  physically  defective 
children)  similar  principles  are  applied,  however.  By  the  Regula- 
tions of  the  Board  of  Education  the  average  attendance  for  classes 
in  these  schools  must  not  exceed  20,  except  in  two  classes,  where 
the  average  may  be  25. 


100  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

practice  is  for  girls  to  begin  their  domestic  training  at 
eleven  years  of  age.  Opportunities  are  thus  afforded  for 
applying  and  strengthening  at  home  the  knowledge  acquired 
at  each  step. 

There  is  of  course  no  need  of  specialisation  in  the  infant 
department.  The  "  mothering ':  principle  ought  to  find, 
and  most  often  does  find,  its  happiest  expression  there; 
for  the  care  and  training  which  the  young  child  needs  are 
just  those  which  a  devoted,  cultured,  and  intelligent  mother 
would  give.  Interest  should  run  like  a  gold  thread  through 
the  network  of  the  social,  physical,  and  mental  traiuing, 
based  on  the  natural  order  of  development  of  a  child's 
body  and  mind,  and  therefore  reasonably  within  the  range 
of  its  potential  activities.  Indeed  this  principle  should  be 
applicable  to  all  schools. 

Departmental  Teaching, — With  regard  to  the  senior  de- 
partments, specialisation  in  subjects  other  than  those 
already  named  is  gradually  growing  into  favour.  The 
general  practice  is  to  have  one  teacher  responsible  for  the 
whole  of  the  subjects  taught  in  one  class,  with  perhaps 
exceptions  here  and  there  in  favour  of  vocal  music.  In 
this  country,  and  to  a  much  larger  extent  in  America,  the 
practice  is  occasionally  adopted  of  making  each  member 
of  the  staff,  not  responsible  for  a  class  as  a  whole,  but 
responsible  only  for  those  subjects  in  each  class  which  he 
is  best  fitted  by  knowledge  and  aptitude  to  teach.  Whether 
this  principle  should  be  applied  wholly  to  the  senior  de- 
partments in  primary  schools,  or  only  to  the  upper  classes, 
or  whether  it  should  find  any  justification  at  all,  is  a  pro- 
blem which  can  best  be  determined  by  experience.  There 
is  no  doubt  concerning  the  value  of  specialisation  in  secon- 
dary schools,  especially  in  the  higher  forms.  Local  condi- 
tions and  circumstances  have  always  to  be  borne  in  mind. 

The  complete  application  of  the  principle  has  not  usually 


THE    OLASS.  101 

been  a  success.  Applied,  however,  mostly  to  the  upper 
classes,  it  might  find  its  true  position  in  the  elementary 
school.  Singing,  nature  study,  and  history  are  the  addi- 
tional subjects  that  demand  a  special  knowledge  and 
aptitude  for  really  satisfactory  treatment. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  modified 
specialisation — departmental  teaching,  as  it  is  called — may 
be  briefly  summarised  thus : — The  gains  are,  (1)  A 
teacher's  work  is  limited  to  instruction  in  subjects  with 
which  he  is  best  acquainted  and  which  presumably  appeal 
most  to  his  tastes.  (2)  Interest  and  special  knowledge  in 
the  teacher  ensure,  as  a  rule,  good  method,  zealous  work, 
and  breadth  of  treatment.  (3)  Scholars  become  more 
interested  when  facts  are  presented  in  bright  colours  rather 
than  in  sober  greys.  (4)  The  pupil  has  a  better  oppor- 
tunity of  finding  his  true  bent.  (5)  Scholars  are  likely  to 
get  a  more  extended  horizon  by  being  brought  daily  into 
contact  with  several  teachers.  (6)  The  specialist  can 
draw  out  a  suitable  course  of  instruction  in  his  subject, 
for  the  whole  school,  graded  to  meet  every  stage  in  a 
pupil's  advancement,  which  should  operate  independently 
of  calendar  or  educational  years. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  losses  or  disadvantages  are, — 
(1)  Diminution  of  moral  control  by  the  teachers  because 
of  the  extended  field  of  work ;  but  when  the  sum  of  the 
influences  of  the  school  is  great,  this  loss  is  more  apparent 
than  real.  (2)  Divided  responsibility  for  a  class  as  a  whole. 
Even  supposing  one  teacher  is  considered  primarily  respon- 
sible for  registration,  attendance,  punctuality,  stock,  tone, 
and  discipline  on  account  of  the  larger  share  of  time  given 
to  a  particular  class,  still  his  influence  cannot  be  so  great 
as  if  he  were  in  sole  charge ;  and  he  may  justly  urge 
that  discipline  depends  on  many  forces,  for  only  some  of 
which  he  is  directly  responsible.    (3)  Strain  on  the  teachers 


102  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  little  variety  in  the  work.  A  more  liberal  staff,  there- 
fore, is  generally  necessary.  With  this  staff,  however,  the 
strain  would  disappear.  There  is  perhaps,  too,  ample 
scope  for  variety  even  in  one  subject — it  depends  on  the 
person.  (4)  Scholars  are  more  likely  to  take  a  special 
interest  in  one  or  more  subjects  to  the  neglect  of  the 
others.  General  knowledge  and  general  training  are,  as 
a  rule,  desirable.  (5)  Teachers  are  not  all  qualified  by 
tact  or  temperament  to  take  every  class  in  the  school. 
This,  however,  would  not  be  necessary  in  a  large  institu- 
tion where  there  may  be  more  than  one  teacher  for  each 
subject.  (6)  There  is  a  possible  danger,  too,  that  each 
specialist  will  push  his  own  subject  to  the  detriment  of 
others.  The  conflict  of  claims  thus  arising  is  a  disturbing 
factor.  (7)  There  is  also  a  tendency  in  many  specialists 
towards  narrowness  of  vision,  which  can  only  be  counter- 
acted by  a  broad  general  culture. 

A  warning  here  appears  to  be  necessary.  The  student 
should  not  be  guided  by  the  number  of  pros  and  cons  in 
estimating  the  value  of  any  device.  One  simple  statement, 
say  in  favour  of  a  scheme,  may  by  its  inherent  worth  carry 
more  weight  than  twenty  points  against  it.  The  true 
values  lie  in  quality,  in  effectiveness,  not  in  numbers. 

Within  certain  limits,  there  seems  to  be  no  cause  for 
doubt  that  specialisation  is  a  most  effective  method  for 
stimulating  interest  and  activity.  The  possibilities  of  its 
service  in  training  have  not  yet  been  fully  realised,  particu- 
larly in  elementary  schools.  In  addition  to  other  subjects 
already  taught  at  centres,  drawing,  music,  nature  study, 
history,  English  literature,  modern  languages,  and  science 
demand  a  precision  and  breadth  of  treatment  which  only 
the  specialist  can  supply. 

The  lessons  given  by  the  ordinary  class  teacher  in 
these   subjects   are   often   very    unsatisfactory :    they    re- 


THE    CLASS.  103 

semble  in  effects  the  poverty  of  the  seed  that  lacks  the 
vital  principle  of  growth  and  development ;  whereas  by  the 
touch  and  revelation  of  an  enthusiastic  teacher  who  has 
a  mastery  of  his  subject,  there  are  few  parts  of  the  curri- 
culum that  cannot  be  transformed  into  a  series  of  fairy 
tales,  the  realities  of  which  can  hardly  fail  in  their  appeal. 

Ungraded  Room. — In  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
there  is  an  ungraded  room  in  each  school  for  children 
unable  to  maintain  their  standing  in  the  regular  class- 
room.1 This  is  a  desirable  innovation.  An  ungraded 
class  should  be  in  charge  of  a  teacher  of  exceptional  powers, 
since  the  children  constituting  it  are,  as  a  rule,  those  who 
by  irregular  attendance,  mental  sloth,  unruliness  of  con- 
duct, or  other  causes,  have  fallen  considerably  behind  the 
ordinary  scholars,  or  who  need  a  special  disciplinary  regime. 
It  has  been  already  said  that  such  a  class  should  be  small 
because  individual  attention  is  imperative.  In  many  cases 
a  few  months'  training,  under  conditions  like  these — the 
working  basis  being  entirely  on  practical  lines,  including 
vivid  presentation  of  fact — would  enable  a  pupil  to  take 
his  place  in  the  regular  class-room.  It  is  important  that 
assignment  to  an  ungraded  room  should  not  be  regarded 
either  as  a  punishment  to  the  scholar  or  a  reproach  to  the 
parent. 

Economical  considerations  often  arise  in  connection 
with  this  device,  since  it  generally  involves  the  engage- 
ment of  at  least  one  additional  teacher.  In  large  depart- 
ments it  would  probably  be  desirable  to  have  two  ungraded 
classes,  one  for  the  upper  school  and  another  for  the  lower. 
Into  either  of  these  classes,  according  to  a  rough  estimate 
of  capability,  some  newly-admitted  scholars  of   doubtful 

1  Report  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago, 
1900. 


104  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

capacity  might  be  drafted  until  their  attainments  point  to 
a  definite  place  for  them  in  the  regular  class  system. 

The  Class-room. — It  would  be  refreshing  both  to 
teachers  and  pupils  if  class-rooms  could  be  made  more 
interchangeable  than  they  generally  are.  Difficulties, 
however,  present  themselves.  The  room  might  fit  the 
class  in  that  its  accommodation  may  not  be  exceeded  by 
the  habitual  attendance.  Classes  and  class-rooms,  how- 
ever, often  vary  considerably  in  size.  When,  therefore, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  educational  year,  the  class 
has  been  adjusted  to  the  room,  it  is  not  always  practicable 
to  effect  even  a  temporary  change  without  a  breach  of 
official  regulations.1  When,  however,  rooms  and  classes 
lend  themselves  to  interchangeability,  it  would  be  well  to 
make  use  of  it  as  often  as  possible. 

Another  obstacle  arises  in  connection  with  seating 
accommodation.  It  is  evident  that  desks  specially  sup- 
plied for  the  older  scholars  are  not  equally  suitable  for 
the  younger  ones.  The  two  lower  classes  might  change 
rooms  occasionally  so  far  as  desks  are  concerned — the  in- 
termediate classes  might  do  the  same,  so  might  the  upper 
standards.  A  third  limitation  to  interchangeability  comes 
in  the  way  of  general  equipment,  each  room  in  this  respect 
being  supplied  once  a  year,  in  accordance  with  the  grade 
of  the  class  assigned  to  it.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  unless 
there  is  a  spare  room  designed  to  meet  general  needs,  class- 
rooms, except  for  a  special  purpose,  may  be  regarded  as 
not  being  readily  interchangeable  under  present  conditions. 

It  has  unfortunately  become  the  practice2  in  senior 
departments  to  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  floor  space  of 

1  Art.  19,  Code  1910. 

2  Art.  20,  Code  1910,  and  Section  6  of  the  Board  of  Education's 
Building  Regulations  for  Elementary  Schools. 


THE    CLASS.  105 

class-rooms  with  heavy  desks,  movable  or  immovable. 
This  arrangement  places  serious  limitations  upon  the  use 
of  the  room,  which  might  otherwise  be  easily  converted  to 
purposes  tending  to  give  greater  breadth  and  reality  to 
school  training.  In  the  rigidity  of  this  practice,  in  the 
absence  of  less  restrictive  regulations,  and  in  the  want  of  a 
supply  of  desks  either  easily  removable  or  readily  con- 
vertible to  the  needs  of  every  pupil,  lie  the  impossibility  of 
obtaining  that  full  freedom  of  movement  which  is  so 
essential  to  physical  development,  and  also  the  impracti- 
cability of  utilising  the  rooms  effectively  for  handicraft 
work.  Nothing  short  of  a  revolution  in  ideas  as  to  the 
nature  of  school  furniture  can  bring  about  the  change  that 
is  so  much  needed.  However,  matters  must  be  accepted 
as  they  now  stand,  with  the  hope  that  such  minor  modifi- 
cations as  are  deemed  pressing  may  prove  acceptable  to 
Education  Authorities. 

Assuming  that  desks  are  necessary  to  each  class-room — 
an  assumption  by  no  means  admissible — is  there  any  valid 
reason  why  desks  with  adjustable  seats  should  not  be 
supplied  ?  If  this  could  be  done — and  the  classes  and 
rooms  were  not  very  unequal  in  size  and  capacity — the 
rooms  would  thus  be  interchangeable.  This  in  itself 
would  be  an  immense  gain,  for  even  a  little  change  of 
immediate  environment,  if  not  definitely  for  the  worse,  is 
stimulating.  But  the  greatest  advantage  would  result  in 
the  equipment  of  each  room  on  a  subject  basis.  There  could, 
for  example,  be  a  room  for  history,  another  for  geo- 
graphy, a  third  for  science,  a  fourth  for  mathematics,  and 
so  on,  when  the  school  is  large  enough  to  admit  of  a 
separate  subject  differentiation.  When  the  school  is  com- 
paratively small,  the  rooms  might  be  equipped  on  a  two- 
subject  basis. 

Under  easily  possible  conditions  like  these  the  monotony 


106  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

of  school  life  would  perish  and  a  recurring  stimulus  to 
activity  would  be  kept  in  almost  continuous  operation. 

A  history  room,  for  example,  might  contain  charts, 
relief  maps  and  globes,  copies  of  old  documents  (Magna 
Charta) ,  diagrams,  ancient  weapons  and  armour,  historical 
pictures  and  photographs,  models  of  various  kinds — every- 
thing, in  fine,  tending  to  give  realistic  touches  to  the  past 
and  to  bring  the  imagination  to  play  upon  it. 

The  School  Hall. — The  hall  should  not,  except  under 
stress  of  circumstances,  be  used  as  a  regular  class-room. 
In  the  winter  months,  and  at  other  periods  of  the  year 
when  the  weather  is  inclement,  the  use  of  the  hall  for  drill 
is  desirable.  It  may  also  be  used  for  such  silent  lessons 
as  needlework  and  model  drawing,1  provided  the  light  is 
satisfactory.  Of  course  there  are  other  uses  to  which  the 
hall  may  be  legitimately  applied,  but  it  is  only  being 
considered  now  from  the  standpoint  of  class  instruction. 

The  position  of  the  hall  in  relation  to  the  class-rooms  is 
a  qualifying  factor  in  the  uses  to  which  it  can  be  generally 
put.  A  hall,  for  example,  with  class-rooms  opening  into 
it,  cannot  be  utilised  for  singing  lessons — grouped  classes 
or  otherwise — without  disturbing  studies  in  adjoining 
rooms.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  hall  is  not  in  direct  com- 
munication with  class-rooms,  the  extension  of  its  useful- 
ness need  only  be  limited  by  the  time  devoted  to  school 
work:  and  this  extension  is  eminently  desirable  both  on 
economical  and  educational  grounds. 

1  Not  desks  but  chairs,  being  easily  portable,  should  be  used  for 
this  purpose.  In  the  case  of  drawing,  no  support  is  needed  for  the 
millboards  or  drawing  boards  beyond  the  lap-rest  and  the  hold  of 
the  left  hand.  In  this  way,  too,  the  scholar  is  brought  into  more 
sensitive  contact  with  the  paper  on  which  he  is  recording  his  im- 
pressions. 


THE    CLASS. 


107 


The  Class  Teacher  from  the  point  of  view  of 
Organisation.— Some  aspects  of  this  question  have  already 
been  incidentally  discussed,  but  there  are  other  points  that 
demand  attention.  The  grading  of  teachers  recognised  on 
the  staff  of  a  school  by  the  Board  of  Education  has 
recently  undergone  revision.  The  old  Article  50  and 
Article  68  teachers  are  no  longer  so  designated.  Teachers 
are  now  graded  thus  : 1 — 

1.  Head  teachers. 

2.  Certificated  teachers. 2 

3.  Uncertificated  teachers    (the   old   Art.    50   teachers, 

etc.).3 

4.  Supplementary   teachers   (the  old  Art.   68  teachers, 

women  only).4 

5.  Student  teachers.5 

6.  Pupil  teachers.6 

The  head  teacher  in  many  small  schools,  besides  directive 
and  supervisory  duties,  has  necessarily  to  be  a  class  teacher. 

Some  local  education  authorities  recognise  the  position 
of  head  assistant  in  schools  of  abnormal  size,  and  in  mixed 
departments  supervised  by  a  master.  In  the  former  case, 
some  of  the  minor  duties  which  ordinarily  devolve  upon 
the  head  teacher  are  taken  over  by  the  head  assistant ;  and 
in  the  latter  case,  the  head  assistant  mistress  generally 
becomes  responsible  for  the  supervision  of  the  needlework 
throughout  the  school,  and  otherwise  serves  in  an  advisory 
capacity  on  the  girls'  side. 

1  Schedule  I.  and  Art.  12  (a,  b),  Code  1910. 

2  Art.  12  and  Schedule  I.  (A  and  B),  Code  1910. 

3  Art.  12  and  Schedule  I.  (C),  Code  1910. 

4  Art.  12  and  Schedule  I.  (D),  Code  1910.  Men  are  not  now 
admissible  ;  but  if  previously  recognised,  this  recognition  will  not 
extend  beyond  the  date  on  which  their  present  recognition  expires. 

5  Art.  12  and  Schedule  II.  (A  and  B),  Code  1910.   ' 

6  Art.  11  (a),  Code  1910. 


108  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Ceteris  paribus,  the  class  teachers  should  rank,  in  the 
mind  of  the  organiser,  in  the  order  of  seniority  of  service ; 
but  nothing  should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  due 
recognition  and  full  utilisation  of  special  ability  associated 
with  a  young  member  of  the  staff.  It  is  advisable  too  that 
every  newly  appointed  class  teacher  should  be  placed  under 
probation  during  the  first  year  of  service. l 

The  time  which  a  teacher  should  give  daily  to  his  class 
must  depend  on  circumstances.  Generally  that  time  coin- 
cides with  the  hours  in  which  the  school  is  in  session  ;  but 
it  is  manifest  that,  in  the  case  of  specialised  lessons  in 
the  regular  class-room,  no  teacher  ought  to  be  expected  to 
teach  continuously  during  the  day.  Some  intermission  is 
necessary  both  on  grounds  of  efficiency  and  personal  health 
— the  time  not  employed  in  actual  teaching  being  utilised 
in  the  examination  and  correction  of  pupils'  exercises  or  in 
preparation  of  future  lessons.  In  the  case  of  the  regular 
class  teacher,  there  is  generally  sufficient  variety  in  his 
work  to  give  the  desired  relaxation,  without  the  necessity 
for  further  change  and  rest. 

But  no  teacher  who  makes  a  true  estimate  of  his  profes- 
sion will  regard  the  actual  school  hours  as  the  fitting 
limitations  to  his  labours.  As  the  successful  artist  is 
absorbed  by  his  art,  or  is  a  devotee  to  it,  so  the  class 
teacher  should  show  equal  delight  in  and  devotion  to  his 
work.  Successful  issues  for  both  teacher  and  taught  will 
then  be  assured. 

Preparation  of  Lessons. — The  teacher  who  desires  to 
sustain  the  interest  of  his  scholars  must  be  interested  him- 
self. The  interest  on  his  part  will  keep  him  ever  on  the 
alert  to  add  to  his  knowledge,  and  to  give  a  new  presen- 

1  The  wisdom  of  this  is  fairly  generally  recognised  by  Education 
Authorities. 


THE    CLASS.  109 

tation  of  facts.  Preparation  of  lessons  is  therefore  neces- 
sary. This  can  be  best  effected,  as  a  rule,  in  the  quietude 
of  the  home  or  the  privacy  of  the  study.  No  lesson 
however  well  prepared  in  the  first  instance,  should  be 
regarded  as  theoretically  complete  or  technically  perfect. 
Some  variation  ought  to  be  introduced,  in  form,  dress,  or 
otherwise,  each  time  it  is  repeated.  The  new  element  will 
be  found  to  have  a  considerable  vitalising  power. 

Whatever  preparatory  work  is  done,  it  should  take  per- 
manent form  in  notes.  These  will  be  found  useful  to  all 
concerned  in  the  supervision  of  the  school,  and  especially 
so  as  a  guide  and  reference  for  the  teacher  himself.  And 
as  it  is  not  always  possible  to  bring  within  the  scope  of  one 
lesson  all  that  was  intended  to  be  included  in  it,  it  is 
advisable  for  the  teacher  to  have  at  his  disposal  a  large 
note- book  in  which  he  can  record  the  name  of  the  lesson 
given,  with  the  date,  and  all  the  material  points  dealt 
with.  It  is  a  mistake  to  make  elaborate  notes.  Let 
them  be  as  brief  as  possible  consistently  with  a  clecar 
mode  of  presentation.  And  while  brief  generalisation  in 
this  respect  is  commendable,  it  ought  not  to  be  so  wide 
as  to  leave  two  or  more  deductions  open  in  the  mind  of 
the  head  teacher  or  others  as  to  the  extent  and  direction  of 
the  lesson.  The  notes  should  be,  in  other  words,  almost 
as  complete  a  guide  to  the  expert  who  has  not  heard  the 
lesson  as  to  the  teacher  who  gave  it. 

Correction  of  Class  and  Home  Work. — The  correc- 
tion of  class  work  is  an  ever  recurring  difficulty  which  the 
good  teacher,  however,  always  manages  to  surmount.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  there  is  hardly  any  lesson,  no 
matter  how  individualistic  in  application,  in  which  scholars 
should  be  left  entirely  without  controlling  supervision  and 
helpful  guidance.     It  is,  therefore,  most  undesirable,  unless 


110  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

a  teacher  can  be  relieved  from,  teaching  responsibilities  for 
a  short  time — and  this  is  the  proper  course — for  him  to 
correct  such  work  in  school  hours  when  his  full  attention 
is  needed  for  other  purposes.  But  cases  arise  in  which 
sessional  correction  appears  imperative.  Home  lessons,  for 
example,  may  need  almost  daily  examination.  The  books 
containing  those  lessons  are  usually  brought  in  the  morning 
and  carried  home  at  the  close  of  the  afternoon  session. 
Something,  therefore,  must  be  done  to  meet  this  and  similar 
cases  that  demand  prompt  attention.  Many  teachers  cut 
the  Grordian  knot  by  looking  over  these  books  during  the 
two  hours'  dinner  interval ;  but  this  does  not  meet  the 
difficulty  considered  as  a  part  of  school  organisation. 

There  remain,  however,  a  few  courses  for  adoption : — 
(1)  The  preparation  and  reciting  system  as  applied  in  the 
United  States.  (2)  The  partial  employment  of  pupil 
teachers  or  student  teachers  for  this  purpose — to  be  re- 
sorted to  within  strict  limitations,  and  only  as  a  part  of 
their  training.  (3)  The  Hall  Scripture  lesson  by  the  head 
teacher  once  a  week,  which  should  for  the  time  relieve 
some  of  the  assistant  teachers.  This,  however,  is  only,  in 
part,  a  one-day  remedy.  (4)  In  certain  exercises  that 
assume  a  common  form  the  scholars  should  be  trained  to 
correct  their  own  work,  especially  when  such  correction  is 
mechanical — a  most  valuable  plan,  if  effectively  carried 
out.  (5)  The  combination  of  two  or  more  classes  for  a 
lesson  in  vocal  music,  history,  etc.  (6)  Silent  reading  and 
certain  other  exercises  involving  private  study,  which  do 
not  need  close  supervision.  Much  of  the  work  of  pupils 
does  not  necessarily  call  for  correction  at  the  desk.  The 
teacher  can  therefore  move  about  the  class-room  and  be 
both  supervising  and  examining  papers.  (7)  The  engage- 
ment of  such  a  liberal  staff  as  would  enable  the  head 
teacher  to  organise  on  the  basis  of  allowing  each  assistant 


THE    CLASS.  Ill 

to  stand  off  from  actual  teaching  for,  at  least,  one  lesson 
or  one  hour  every  day. 

Of  these  devices  the  first  and  the  last  are  probably  the 
best :  they  are  certainly  the  most  complete  and  efficacious. 

But  whatever  course  is  adopted,  the  correction  of  exer- 
cises must  be  regarded  as  an  important  part  of  the  work 
of  a  class  teacher,  who,  if  aided  in  the  merely  mechanical 
side  of  the  examination  of  the  papers,  should  assess  the 
value  of  each  exercise  himself.  Too  much  care  cannot  be 
taken  in  this  direction.  Careless  marking  will  re- act  on 
the  scholars,  and  produce  destructive  effects.  Indeed 
everything  that  the  teacher  does,  in  this  and  all  other 
school  matters,  should  be  a  model  of  neatness  and  accu- 
racy :  and  further,  the  general  assessment  of  the  work 
should  be  determined  by  reference  to  a  high  standard  that 
is  perfectly  defined  in  his  own  mind.  Of  the  seven  courses 
open  to  the  teacher,  (1)  and  (7)  must  depend  partially  on 
the  education  authority  ultimately  responsible  for  the 
school's  efficiency :  the  remainder  can  be  applied  at  the 
teacher's  discretion  according  to  circumstances.  If,  how- 
ever, the  class  teacher  is  an  enthusiast,  he  will  find  the 
means  of  doing  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  detail  of  correction 
himself,  for  such  detail  will  give  him  an  insight  into  each 
child's  attainments  and  character,  which  he  could  not  so 
surely  obtain  by  any  other  means.  The  value  of  this 
knowledge  is  too  evident  to  be  indicated. 

Athletics — Playground. — As  the  professional  man's 
daily  work  will  not  admit  of  a  rigid  time  interpretation,  so 
it  is  with  the  class  teacher,  who  should  consider  the  school 
hours  rather  as  a  guide  to,  than  a  measure  of,  his  labours 
— for  duties  external  to  the  class-room  are  necessarily 
associated  with  his  office.  Not  among  the  least  of  these 
are  (1)  playground  supervision,  (2)  supervision  of  scholars 


112  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

retained  after  school  hours,  (3)  supervision  of,  or  co-oper- 
ation in,  school  athletics,  represented  by  cricket,  football, 
and  other  clubs.1  The  first  and  second  of  these,  and  some- 
times the  third  also,  are  usually  regarded  as  rota  work. 
In  practice,  however,  athletics  are  best  left  to  the  direction 
of  one  inspiriting  member  of  the  staff,  who  takes  a  special 
interest  therein.  The  playground  has  been  happily  called 
the  "  uncovered  school."  Teachers  should,  in  turn,  exer- 
cise supervision  over  it  at  reasonable  times.  During  the 
recreation  interval,  every  teacher's  place  is  in  the  play- 
ground with  his  scholars,  directing  sometimes — the  less  of 
this  direction  the  better — and  occasionally  taking  part  in 
their  games.  A  touch  of  camaraderie  with  pupils  assists  in 
strengthening  the  moral  tie  between  teacher  and  taught : 
it  helps  to  individualise  pupils  in  the  way  of  clearer  cha- 
racterisation, without  which  knowledge  real  success  in  the 
management  of  children  can  never  be  achieved. 

It  is  notorious  that  the  playground  brings  out  qualities 
in  the  pupil  which  may  never  be  shown  in  the  class-room. 
This  alone,  apart  from  other  potent  considerations,  calls 
for  the  teacher's  presence  there. 

Class  Examinations. — In  conformity  with  the  practice 
in  every  good  school,  periodical  examinations  should  be  held 
by  the  head  teacher,  and  a  record  of  the  results  preserved. 
It  is  not  a  rare  event  on  occasions  like  these,  to  find  that  a 
class  teacher  resents  certain  adverse  criticisms  which  the 
head  teacher  feels  it  necessary  to  make,  especially  when 
such  criticism  is,  as  it  should  be,  recorded  in  a  book  kept 
for  that  and  other  purposes.  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  in 
this  connection  that  the  head  teacher  is  only  assessing  the 
value  of  work  for  which  he  himself  is  ultimately  respon- 

1  See  Article  by  Mr.  G.  Sharpies,  Special  Reports,  Vol.  22 ;  also 
Report  of  the  City  Superintendent  of  New  York,  1903. 


THE    CLASS.  113 

sible,  and  that  therefore,  in  all  human  probability,  he  is 
the  last  person  likely  to  underestimate  the  worth  of  what 
has  been  accomplished,  particularly  as  the  record  books 
and  examination  papers  are  accessible  to  all  inspectors 
representing  either  the  Board  of  Education  or  the  Local 
Authority. 

The  attitude  of  the  class  teacher  in  matters  of  this  kind 
should  always  be  one  of  unqualified  acceptance,  never 
doubting  for  a  moment  the  justice  and  truth  of  the  head 
teacher's  remarks.  Indeed  this  mental  attitude  is  essential 
not  only  to  the  well-being  of  the  class  but  to  the  highest 
efficiency  of  the  teacher.  The  criticisms  in  question  are 
intended  to  serve  the  threefold  purpose  of  estimating 
progress,  indicating  defects,  and  giving  helpful  hints  for 
future  guidance.  The  teacher's  art  is  a  most  difficult 
one,  and  the  class  teacher  can  only  become  accomplished 
in  this  art  by  subordinating  himself  to  the  judgment  of 
his  chief  much  in  the  same  spirit  as  a  disciple  follows  his 
master.  That  this  is  so,  experience  shows  by  a  multitude 
of  examples.  He  who  wishes  to  rise  in  his  profession  must 
not  only  accept  unbiassed  criticism  of  his  work  as  if  Truth 
herself  had  descended  from  her  pedestal  to  give  him  a 
lesson,  but  he  must  be  a  more  severe  critic  of  himself,  of 
his  methods,  ever  undergoing  self-examination,  than  any 
higher  official  could  possibly  be.  Loyal  acceptance  of  the 
head  teacher's  views  on  the  examination  and  on  all  other 
questions  that  vitally  concern  the  school  is  indispensable 
to  easy  working  and  successful  issues. 

When  examinations  are  carried  out  two  or  three  times  a 
year  by  the  head  teacher,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any 
necessity  for  similar  formal  examinations  by  the  class 
teacher.  Indeed  the  latter  should  be  so  closely  in  touch 
with  his  pupils  as  to  be  able  to  estimate  their  progress 
mostly  by  means  of  their  daily  work. 

s.  o.  10 


114  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  class  teacher  to  preserve  all  records 
in  connection  with  his  class.  Just  as  a  regiment,  a  unit  in 
military  organisation,  is  proud  of  its  deeds,  so  should  a 
class,  as  the  unit  of  the  school,  be  mindful  of  its  achieve- 
ments. To  this  end,  a  record  of  successes  should  have  a 
place  on  the  class-room  walls.  In  case  of  any  tendency 
to  fall  away  from  the  standards  reached,  or  the  ideals 
that  have  led  in  that  direction,  the  wise  teacher  will 
use  these  records  as  a  means  of  arresting  depression, 
by  calling  attention  to  the  responsibilities  of  the  class 
and  of  every  pupil  associated  with  it.  Pride  of  class 
should  be  a  sentiment  equally  stimulating  to  teacher  and 
scholar. 

Class  Discipline. — Although  the  personality  of  the 
head  teacher  should  be  the  dominant  factor  in  the  tone  and 
discipline  of  a  school,  which  should  always  possess  well- 
marked  characteristics,  yet  the  tone  and  discipline  of  each 
class  have  their  own  peculiar  variations  that  are  mainly 
dependent  on  the  personnel  of  the  class  teacher.  These 
variations  should  never  be  great ;  for  they  would  be  likely 
to  disturb  the  balance  of  the  school,  the  sensitiveness  of 
which  is  one  of  the  most  subtle  manifestations  in  school 
life.  But  the  personal  equation  is  inevitable  in  its  effects, 
and  must  be  considered. 

There  is,  however,  another  element  besides  the  person- 
ality of  the  teacher,  that  is  not  without  its  beneficial  or 
perhaps  its  sinister  influences.  Every  strong  character 
among  the  scholars— indeed  one  might  say  every  scholar, 
whether  strong  or  not — unconsciously  contributes  some- 
thing to  the  sum  of  the  forces  that  determines  the  vis 
agendi  of  the  class.  Each  pupil  who  voluntarily  accepts 
the  will  of  the  school  community  and  that  of  the  teacher 
— these  two  should  be,  of  course,  coincident — as  his  own 


THE    CLASS.  115 

is  a  valuable  educational  asset;  ibis  acceptance  makes  for 
stability,  solidarity,  and  progress. 

There  are  really  therefore  a  multitude  of  elements  in 
the  school,  and  a  thousand  and  one  influences  both  within 
and  without,  that  play  their  part  even  in  class  discipline. 
The  dominant  note  is  naturally  struck  by  the  head  of  the 
school ; — and,  speaking  metaphorically,  the  assistant  staff, 
each  in  his  or  her  own  way,  have  their  notes,  which  must, 
however,  be  in  harmony  with  the  dominant  one;  while  every 
scholar  again  strikes  his  personal  note,  which  should,  for 
perfect  concord  and  easy  working,  blend  harmoniously  with 
those  of  the  leaders.     Tradition  adds  its  undertones. 

Each  class  should  therefore  be  dominated  by  the  tone  of 
the  whole  school.  Its  own  variations  should  be,  so  to 
speak,  in  the  minor  key,  but  so  distinctive  that  the  charac- 
ter and  forcefulness  of  the  class  are  easily  recognisable. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  inviolable  law,  that  the  lead- 
ing ideas  that  govern  the  tone  and  discipline  of  a  school 
as  a  whole  should  never  be  disturbed  by  the  class 
teacher.  He  may  add  to  them  for  his  pupils'  good,  but  on 
no  account  should  he  subtract  from  them.  They  should 
be  accepted  as  the  foundation  upon  which  he  desires  to 
build.  With  these  limitations,  he  has  ample  scope  for  the 
display  of  his  talents,  and  the  inductive  powers  of  his 
character. 

With  the  improved  buildings  of  recent  years,  giving 
generally  a  separate  room  for  each  qualified  assistant,  the 
class  teacher's  training  influence  is  likely  to  increase.  It 
is,  therefore,  important  that  he  should  be  acquainted  with 
the  essential  principles  that  lead  the  way  to  the  perfection 
of  discipline — since  these  give  the  law  that  governs  the 
school,  and  makes  order,  right  conduct,  and  good  work 
possible. 

So  far  as  the  pupils  are  concerned,  tbe  tests  of  sound 


116  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

class  discipline  are  (1)  prompt  and  willing  obedience, 
(2)  close  application,  (3)  pleasure  in  giving  satisfaction  to 
the  teacher,  (4)  eagerness  to  answer  questions  combined 
with  thoughtful  answering,  (5)  good  manners  and  right 
conduct  generally,  (6)  thoroughness  in  work,  (7)  good 
order  without  unnecessary  physical  or  mental  restraint, 
(8)  collective  and  individual  self-control. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  class  teacher,  in  order  to  assist 
in  creating  these  qualities  and  also  to  maintain  them,  should 
be — 

(1)  Able  to  adjust  himself  to  his  class.  Age  of  the 
scholars  is  a  great  consideration  in  this  matter.  Sex  and 
social  position  also  come  in  as  determinants. 

(2)  Sincere  and  therefore  natural.  It  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  convince  otherwise.  Armour  of  any  kind  is 
useless.     The  scholars  will  see  it  at  once. 

(3)  Patient  and  sympathetic.  Sympathy  is  the  key  to 
his  perfect  mastery  over  the  scholars  :  the  best  road  to  the 
head  is  through  the  heart,  and  "  patience  lies  at  the  root  of 
all  pleasures  as  well  as  of  all  powers." x 

(4)  Enthusiastic.  The  zealous  teacher  loses  himself  in 
his  scholars.  His  "  work  is  like  the  living  seed  thrown 
into  the  ground  ;  it  germinates  and  brings  forth  harvests."2 

(5)  Quick  in  decision.  Children  intuitively  measure  a 
teacher's  strength,  and  any  indecision  on  his  part  will  be 
felt  by  the  scholars  instantaneously.  The  teacher,  there- 
fore, ought  never  to  be  in  doubt  as  to  the  right  course  of 
action.  A  firm  but  kindly  exercise  of  power  calls  forth  a 
child's  respect. 

(6)  True  to  his  own  commands.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  a  mistake 
to  repeat  an  order.  It  is  better  to  watch  and  wait  until  it 
has  been  fully  obeyed,  naming  an  individual  or  individuals 
if  necessary.     Nothing  is  more  fatal  to  discipline  than  to 

1  Ruskin.  2  The  Simple  Life,  C.  Wagner. 


THE     CLASS.  117 

allow  one  act  of  disobedience  to  pass — even  when  that  act 
is  only  one  of  omission. 

(7)  Careful  to  husband  the  voice.  Loudness  of  speech 
defeats  its  own  object,  and  causes  a  waste  of  energy  that 
could  be  best  utilised  in  other  ways.  Shouting  or  noisy 
demonstration  of  any  kind  creates  a  bad  impression.  The 
voice  of  persuasion  is  always  natural  and  gentle.  The 
teacher's  eyes  will  aid  the  voice  if  they  are  used  to  cover 
the  class.  "Grace  is  economy  of  force"1:  this  applies 
equally  to  spiritual  grace. 

(8)  Careful  to  sustain  the  children  s  interest.  Every  step 
ought  to  be  one  of  progress  and  the  scholars  should  be 
made  to  feel  it.  Short  periods  of  intense  study  are  generally 
more  valuable  and  interesting  than  longer  periods,  into 
which  monotony  is  almost  sure  to  creep.  Generally, 
"  pleasure  heightens  and  retards  the  pulse ;  displeasure 
weakens  and  accelerates  it."2  A  child  will  exhaust  much 
more  nervous  energy  in  the  performance  of  a  task  in  which 
he  takes  no  interest,  than  in  a  corresponding  one  in  which 
his  interest  is  excited. 

(9)  Just3  and  tactful.  Praise  of  good  work  or  worthy 
conduct  is  valuable.  Blame,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be 
used  sparingly.  The  children  must,  however,  feel  that 
the  teacher,  above  all,  is  just,  or  they  will  have  but 
little  respect  either  for  his  praise  or  his  condemnation. 
A  pupil  once  spoke  of  Dr.  Temple  (when  at  Rugby) 
as  "  a  beast,  but  a  just  beast."  Tact  is  an  every-day 
wisdom. 

1  H.  Spencer. 

2  Psychology  and  Crime,  p.  128,  Prof.  Miinsterberg. 

3  "  The  eye  of  the  passing  child  will  not  greet  you  with  the  same 
unapproachable  smile  if  there  lurk  within  you  an  evil  thought, 
an  injustice,  or  a  brother's  tears." — The  Treasure  of  the  Humble, 
M.  Maeterlinck. 


118  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(10)  Definite  in  aim  and  consistent  in  demands,  always 
busy  himself  and  always  aiming  at  a  high  standard. 

"  High  endeavours  are  an  inward  light." 

Abundant  energy  at  one  time  and  slackness  at  another, 
with  corresponding  demands  upon  the  scholars,  are  mis- 
chievous in  their  tendencies. 

(11)  Mindful  that  discipline  is  not  an  end,  but  a  means 
to  "  complete  living.''''  If  the  essential  is  always  in  the 
forefront,  the  accessories  will  take  care  of  themselves. 

(12)  Firm,  self-reliant,  and  possessed  of  self-control.  It 
is  important  that  the  scholars  should  understand  that 
within  the  class-room  lies  the  power  of  complete  govern- 
ment. The  head  teacher's  authority  ought  only  to  be 
invoked  in  disciplinary  measures  on  exceptionally  trying 
occasions.  "  If  you  achieve  calmness  and  harmony  in  your 
own  person  ...  a  wave  of  imitation  will  spread  from  you, 
as  surely  as  the  circles  spread  outward  when  a  stone  is 
dropped  into  a  lake."1 

(13)  Careful  to  avoid  punishment,  if  possible.  "  The 
instruments  of  reformation  are  employment  and  reward — 
not  punishment."2  This  dictum  is,  however,  only  a  half- 
truth  and  should  be  accepted  as  such. 

"  Small  punishments  are  simply  irritating,  and  it  is  far 
better  to  give  several  warnings  and  then  come  down  with 
all  your  might.  .  .  .  On  the  few  occasions,  when  I  should 
have  liked  to  cane  a  boy,  I  have  never  regretted  that  I  was 
unable  to  do  so."3 

(14)  Attentive  to  the  scholars'  physical  and  mental  com- 
fort. The  desk  should  fit  the  child.  Indeed,  general 
hygienic  conditions  are  essential.  These  poiuts  are,  how- 
ever, dealt  with  elsewhere.  A  child  in  a  state  of  fear  is 
wasting  its  vital  forces. 

1  Prof.  James.         2  Ruskin.        3  The  Schoolmaster,  A.  0.  Benson. 


THE    CLASS.  119 

(15)  Always  willing  to  give  reasonable  scope  for  individual' 
expression.  Without  full  self-expression  the  teacher  is 
working  to  some  extent  in  the  dark ;  it  is  the  mainspring 
of  development.  "  Human  nature  obeys  fixed  laws  no  less 
than  the  figures  of  geometry." l  Liberty  must  be  respected, 
but  curbed  if  it  goes  beyond  its  true  limits.  That  kind  of 
order  and  discipline  need  only  be  secured  which  is  essential 
to  good  work  and  careful  training. 

It  avails  little  to  tell  children  to  be  good :  they  must  be 
led  in  that  direction,  and  have  actual  experience  of  what 
good  means.  One  of  the  surest  ways  into  the  heart  of  a 
child  is  to  associate  oneself  with  activities  that  call  forth 
some  of  the  happiest  moments  of  its  life.  The  value  of 
athletics  in  this  way  has  already  been  touched  upon. 
Class  rambles  in  town,  field,  and  forest  have  equally  been 
proved  to  be  a  most  valuable  aid  to  good  discipline. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  brief  reference  to  class  discipline 
how  important  is  the  personality  of  the  teacher.  Through 
him  the  law  of  the  school  mostly  speaks,  and  that  law  will  be 
operative  and  effective  in  proportion  to  his  own  strength. 
His  duty  is  not  fulfilled  by  a  strict  attention  to  the  courses 
of  instruction  assigned  to  the  class,  nor  by  exacting  prompt 
obedience  to  commands,  but  rather  by  keeping  constantly 
in  mind  the  final  end  which  the  school  has  in  view  for. 
each  of  its  pupils,  adjusting  himself  and  his  methods  to 
that  end,  and  using  his  utmost  endeavours  at  all  times 
to  draw  out  from  the  children  that  habitual  and.  volun- 
tary submission  to  regulations  upon  the  willing  and 
reasonable  observance  of  which  the  highest  efficiency  of 
the  class  and  school  depends.  If  he  is  strong,  his  strength 
will  permeate  the  class — reach  the  heart  of  it — and  make 
itself  felt  throughout  the  school ;  if  he  is  weak,  there  will 
be  correspondingly  depressing  effects.     The  teacher  must 

1  Spinoza's  "  Tractatus." 


120  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

endeavour  to  reach  each  scholar  in  turn — to  understand 
his  character,  to  breathe  into  him  the  ideals  that  govern  his 
own  life.  Indeed  the  teacher  needs  a  many-sided  power 
to  be  able  to  accomplish  this.1 

The  impressiveness  of  an  appeal  to  a  class  may  often 
be  great,  but  the  gentle  voice  of  persuasion  and  intense 
conviction,  addressed  solely  to  an  individual,  will  fre- 
quently stir  depths  that  could  not  otherwise  be  reached. 
The  knowledge,  too,  in  a  child  that  he  is  understood  is 
both  a  sweetening  and  an  energising  influence. 

To  summarise,  the  fundamental  principles  and  condi- 
tions— assuming  the  law  of  the  school  is  sound — that 
must  operate  or  subsist  in  a  class-room  in  order  to  secure 
good  discipline  there  are : — 

(1)  The  general  conditions  must  be  such  as  to  facilitate 
the  work  the  pupils  are  called  upon  to  do ;  and  this  work 
must  be  reasonably  within  the  range  of  each  child's  attain- 
ments and  powers. 

(2)  The  teacher  must  be  able  to  adjust  himself  to  the 
class  and  its  needs,  and  to  influence  for  good  every  scholar 
in  it. 

(3)  The  laws  of  the  school,  of  which  the  teacher  must 
be  the  recognised  exponent  and  administrator,  must  be 
paramount. 

(4)  While  the  corporate  spirit  of  the  whole  school  must 
prevail,  the  class  should  have  its  own  vis  agendi  and  full 
sense  of  responsibility. 

(5)  Each  pupil  must  recognise  his  obligations  to  the 
school  as  a  whole,  and  to  his  own  class  in  particular. 

(6)  The  teacher's  mind  must  be  firmly  set  on  training 

1  The  difficulties  perhaps  will  be  more  fully  realised  when  it  is 
understood  that  "  to  educate  a  child  you  must  begin  back  with 
his  grandfather." —  Vide  H.  Spencer's  Education  and  Galton's  Law  of 
Ancestral  Inheritance. 


THE    CLASS.  121 

the  scholars  in  self-control ;  and  as  this  self-control  in- 
creases in  power,  the  reins  of  government  must  be  pro- 
portionately slackened. 

(7)  Mere  class  routine  must  become  automatic. 

(8)  Intense  work  is  the  main  road  to  the  ideal  of  duty. 

Class  Registration. — This  demands  great  care,  espe- 
cially because  it  is  one  of  the  conditions  upon  which  grants 
are  paid  by  the  Board  of  Education.  Registration  should 
be  carried  out  in  strict  conformity  with  the  Regulations.1 
As  a  rule,  the  value  of  a  class  teacher  can  be  roughly 
estimated  by  an  examination  of  the  class  register.  If  it  is 
kept  neatly,  accurately,  and  fully  entered  up  to  date,  it 
implies  attention  to  detail,  and  this  lies  at  the  root  of  all 
success  :  if  it  shows  that  the  scholars  are  more  than  usually 
punctual  and  regular  in  their  attendance,  this  is,  'prima 
facie,  due  to  the  class  teacher's  influence.  Indeed  there  is 
none  of  the  teacher's  duties  which  is  more  important 
than  that  of  forming  habits  of  punctuality  and  regularity, 
since  these  are  not  only  an  immediately  valuable  asset  to 
the  pupil  and  the  school,  but  are  likely  to  continue  with 
him  as  a  law  of  life  to  the  end  of  his  existence. 

Registration  generally  is  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  on 
"  school  records." 

Class  Excursions. — Visits  of  the  class  to  "  places  of 
educational  value  or  interest " 2  as  allowed  by  the  Code, 
during  school  hours,  should  be  encouraged.  Enterprise  in 
this  direction  is  generally  appreciated  by  head  teachers, 
who  must,  in  the  first  instance,  sanction  such  visits,  and 

1  The  Board  "strongly  impress  upon  all  concerned  in  the  keeping 
or  checking  of  School  Registers  the  vital  importance  of  this  work." 
— Pref.  Memorandum,  par.  15,  Code  1910.  See  also  Art.  48  and 
Schedule  IV.,  ibid.  2  Art.  44  (6),  Code  1910. 


122  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

then  obtain  permission  from  H.M.  Inspector.  When  visits 
of  this  kind  are  projected,  it  is  advisable  to  put  the  scholars 
beforehand  in  possession  of  the  important  facts  concern- 
ing the  objective,  in  order  that  the  greatest  educational 
value  may  be  derived  from  the  outing.  An  effective  way 
of  doing  this  is  to  give  one  or  more  lessons  on  the  place  to 
be  visited,  and  to  summarise  material  points  in  a  multi- 
graphed  leaflet,  a  copy  of  which  is  supplied  to  each  scholar. 
Maps  or  plans  of  the  localities  to  be  visited  are  very 
valuable.  The  scholars  should  not  only  be  expected  to 
observe  during  these  visits,  but  to  record  their  impressions 
in  a  notebook  under  definite  and  pre-arranged  headings, 
afterwards  amplified  in  composition  exercises. 

The  teacher  should,  of  course,  be  fully  prepared  on  these 
occasions  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  time  available,  his 
plan  of  operation  being  already  mapped  out  and  recorded 
in  a  book  kept  for  that  purpose.  The  value  of  these  visits 
will  be  chiefly  determined,  not  by  the  amount  of  ground 
covered,  but  by  the  thoroughness  with  which  everything 
attempted  has  been  done.  When  the  courses  of  instruction 
for  a  term  have  been  settled,  it  is  well  to  determine  then 
the  number  and  character  of  the  visits  to  fit  those  courses. 

Conferences. — In  conferences  of  the  school  staff  the 
class  teacher  should  take  an  eager  interest.  It  is  advis- 
able to  hold  these  conferences  at  least  quarterly  or  ter- 
minally, preferably  once  a  month.  Presided  over  by  a 
sympathetic  head,  always  open  to  new  ideas  and  fresh 
convictions,  they  generally  prove  a  great  gain  to  the  school 
and  a  source  of  enlightenment  to  each  member  of  the 
staff.  On  these  occasions  each  teacher  should,  as  a  rule, 
contribute  something  for  discussion,  and  thus  have  diffi- 
culties threshed  out  and  ways  cleared  for  more  rapid  and 
certain  progress.     Such  conferences  have  been  found  to 


THE    CLASS.  123 

encourage  experiment  and  to  stimulate  initiative;  and 
tliey  therefore  materially  assist  in  maintaining  that  living 
interest  in  the  teachers  which  has  been  already  insisted 
upon  as  essential  to  the  interest  of  the  scholar  and  the 
general  welfare  of  the  school.  Any  subject  that  concerns 
the  theory  and  practice  of  education  is  a  fitting  topic  for 
discussion  on  these  occasions,  provided  it  has  a  definite 
bearing  on  the  particular  school. 

Pedagogy  in  this  country  has  too  long  been  regarded  as 
a  known  art  rather  than  one  possessing  grave  difficulties 
and  almost  unfathomable  depths.  The  theory  of  educa- 
tion involves,  as  Mazzini  has  said,  the  problem  of  human 
nature.  No  person  could  desire  a  wider  field  for  the 
exercise  of  thought  and  the  practice  of  research.  No  class 
teacher,  therefore,  need  feel  that  his  profession  is  a  dull 
one. 

In  France  conferences  pass  beyond  the  school  and  take 
Cantonal  or  Departmental  form.  All  teachers  in  the  area 
are  obliged  to  attend  the  conferences,  held,  as  a  rule,  twice 
a  year,  and  to  send  in  advance  a  contribution  for  discus- 
sion, either  in  the  form  of  a  thesis  or  general  impressions 
in  the  shape  of  notes.1 

Sex  of  the  Class  Teach3r. — The  points  to  consider  in 
class  management  are  almost  endless.  This  chapter,  how- 
ever, must  be  concluded  under  the  above  heading.  The 
G-erman  view  is  on  the  side  of  the  employment  of  men 
in  certain  positions  which,  in  this  country,  are  considered 
to  be  best  filled  by  women.  The  American  practice,  on  the 
other  hand,  goes  to  the  other  extreme,  and  gives  largely 
into  the  hands  of  women  teachers  the  education  of  the  bo  vs. 

1  See  Inspection  de  Vemeignement  primaire,  1900,  which  bears 
testimony  to  the  value  of  these  conferences.  The  L.C.C.  also  holds 
an  annual  conference  of  teachers  to  discuss  pedagogical  questions. 


124  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  England  a  middle  course  between  these  two  has 
generally  been  followed,  and  thus  the  employment  of 
women  has  been  mainly  limited  to  mixed,  girls',  and  in- 
fants' departments,  as  well  as  "  special "  schools. 

It  has,  however,  been  long  felt  that  the  change  from  the 
methods  and  environment  of  the  infant  department  to  the 
more  rigid  discipline  and  severer  atmosphere  of  the  senior 
schools  is  too  great  for  young  children,  and  that  it  makes 
in  1he  direction  of  retardation.  Experience  points  to  the 
advantage  of  having  women  teachers  for  Standard  I.  in 
the  boys'  department,  and  probably  for  Standard  II.  also. 
Instances  in  which  women  teachers  have  had  exclusive 
charge  of  boys'  classes  above  Standard  II.  generally  tend 
to  prove  that  the  combination  is  not  quite  satisfactory. 
In  some  mixed  departments,  however,  where  the  girls 
exercise  a  chastening  influence  over  the  boys,  women  class 
teachers  have  been  successful  even  in  the  upper  classes. 
Yet  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  elder  boys  are  the 
better  for  being  taught  and  guided  by  a  master. 

But  this  question  involves  deeper  issues  than  those  that 
lie  on  or  near  the  surface.  Women  are  eminently  fitted  to 
train  young  children  of  either  sex:  they  have  a  natural 
bent  for  this  hind  of  work.  The  spirit  of  childhood  un- 
fortunately forsakes  the  great  majority  of  men;  whereas 
woman,  to  a  large  extent,  subtly  weaves  it  into  the  texture 
of  her  life  with  wonderful  effect.  She  still  sees  the  world, 
as  in  a  vision,  "  apparelled  in  celestial  light,"  and  brings 
the  refining  influence  of  her  soul  power  to  bear  upon  her 
educational  work.  But  the  time  comes  in  a  boy's  life, 
usually  about  the  age  of  ten,  when  he  silently,  and  per- 
haps sullenly,  resents  her  government.  The  forces  calling 
to  him  from  within  will  not  be  denied :  his  development 
depends  largely  on  obedience  to  this  call.  His  whole 
nature  demands  a  wider  field  for  movement  and  mental 


THE    CLASS.  125 

flight,  and  less  detail  in  restriction.  He  is  conscious  of  his 
growth,  of  his  development — conscious  that  he  is  getting 
big  and  important. 

The  conclusion  is  that  stronger  forces  are  needed  to 
restrain  and  to  guide  him,  perhaps  to  be  less  often  applied 
than  the  smaller  ones.  The  woman,  no  matter  how  admir- 
able, with  her  microscopic  vision,  love  of  detail  and  of 
self-sacrifice,  cannot  effectively  meet  this  want ;  but  the 
more  selfish  and  more  assertive  man  can.  The  typical 
boy's  idea  of  order  is  as  remote  from  the  woman's  as  the 
two  poles.  He  despises  detail  in  these  matters :  he  pins 
his  faith  to  wholes. 

All  will  admit  that  training  must  take  strict  account  of 
nature's  laws ;  and  the  ultimate  object  of  this  training  is 
to  make  strong  men  and  inspiring  women.  Nature  has 
differentiated  the  sexes  mentally  and  emotionally  as  well 
as  physically — each  is  the  complement  of  the  other  in  these 
respects.  The  boy  needs  those  manly  influences,  those 
restraints  and  standards  of  action  which  a  capable  master 
can  alone  supply.  He  further  needs  a  model  on  which  to 
build  his  own  life  and  to  satisfy  his  instinctive  craving  to 
admire  and  revere  something  in  the  flesh  :  but  it  must  be 
something  that  appeals  to  the  boyish  mind — something  to 
aim  at  for  himself.  Can  anyone  doubt,  therefore,  that  a 
master — and  not  a  mistress — with  the  living  standard  of 
manhood  in  him,  conscious  of  the  rights  and  needs  of 
the  older  boys,  able,  to  a  large  extent,  to  feel  with  them, 
and  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  their  lives — occasionally 
even  as  a  comrade — is  the  most  fitting  person  to  train  them 
for  life  and  action  ? 


CHAPTER   III. 


"We  see  most  distinctly  the  vice  of  our  educational  system.  It 
neglects  the  plant  for  the  sake  of  the  flower.  In  anxiety  for  ele- 
gance, it  forgets  substance." — H.  Spencer's  Education. 


THE    SCHOOL   AND   ITS  DIVISIONS. 

School  Departments. — Most  elementary  schools,  pro- 
vided and  non-provided,  are  organised  in  three  departments, 
for  boys,  girls,  and  infants,  the  basis  of  separation  being 
chiefly  sex  and.  age.  In  Scotland,  however,  mixed  schools 
prevail,  and  in  the  north  of  England  this  type  of  organisa- 
tion is  fairly  common.  The  infants'  school  is  invariably 
mixed,  and  the  line  of  separation  between  it  and  the  senior 
departments  is  one  mostly  of  age,  though  poverty  of 
attainments  occasionally  prevents  promotion  to  the  senior 
departments  at  the  age  generally  required  for  this  purpose.1 
Eoughly  speaking,  the  senior  departments  are  limited  to 

1  "The  age  at  which  a  child  should  cease  to  be  taught  as  an 
infant  depends  upon  the  child's  proficiency  and  upon  many  local 
circumstances.  The  premature  promotion  of  children  who  are  in 
age  or  attainments  untitted  for  it  is  greatly  to  be  deprecated  ;  but 
the  retention  of  children  whose  age  much  exceeds  that  at  which,  on 
the  average,  a  child  leaves  the  infants'  school  is  inadvisable,  even 
though  they  are  backward.  Such  children  require  stricter  discipline 
and  longer  lessons  .  .  .  and  are  'not  fit  companions'  for  infants 
'in  the  playground,'  etc." — Board  of  Education's  Suggestions. 

"  An  infant  means  a  scholar  under  the  age  of  eight  years,  and  an 

infant  class  means  a  class  in  which  the  majority  of  the  scholars  are 

under  the  age  of  eight  years." — Pref.  Memorandum,  par.  9,  Code 

1910. 

126 


THE     SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  127 

scholars  between  seven  and  fifteen  years  of  age,1  and  the 
infants'  school  to  children  between  the  ages  of  three  and 
eight.2 

Although  the  organisations  indicated  represent  the 
general  trend  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  several 
other  ways  of  organising  schools  find  expression  in  most 
wide  educational  areas,  some  arising  from  a  desire  of  expe- 
riment, others  from  profound  conviction,  and  others  again 
from  economical  considerations.  Thus  it  is  that  about 
seven  or  eight  different  organisations  are  to  be  found  in 
all,  so  far  as  the  ordinary  primary  school  is  concerned : — 

(1)  Boys',    girls',    and    infants'    departments — three 

departments. 

(2)  Senior   boys',    senior    girls',    junior    mixed,    and 

infants'  departments — four  departments. 

(3)  Senior  mixed,  junior  mixed,  and  infants'  depart- 

ments— three  departments. 

(4)  Mixed   and    infants'    departments— two    depart- 

ments. 

(5)  Boys';  girls    and  infants3  forming   a   combined 

department — two  departments. 

1  A  scholar  on  attaining  the  age  of  fifteen  years  should  have  his 
name  removed  from  the  ordinary  class  register,  as  no  fee  grant  is 
claimable  for  him  after  that  time,  except  as  provided  for  under 
Section  22  (2)  of  the  Act  of  1002.  He  may,  however,  continue  to 
receive  instruction  in  the  school  until  the  close  of  the  educational 
year  in  which  he  reaches  the  age  of  fifteen. — Art.  43  (a),  Code  1010. 
"Two  registers"  are  therefore  "required  for  every  class  which 
contains  scholars  who  are  respectively  above  and  below  the  age 
of  fifteen  years." — Pre/.   Memorandum,  Code  1005. 

2  The  law  of  compulsory  attendance  operates  at  five  years  of  age. 
Local  Education  Authorities  may  refuse  to  admit  children  under 
the  age  of  five  years.— Art.  53  (c). 

3  In  all  these  cases  the  infants  must  form  a  division,  which  may 
consist  of  one  or  more  classes,  and  be  taught  separately. 


128  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(6)  Senior     mixed ;      junior     mixed     and     infants ' 

forming  a  combined  department — two  depart- 
ments. 

(7)  Boys,  girls,  and  infants,1  forming  one  department, 

usually  small. 

There  are  also  dual  schools  or  dual  departments :  these, 
under  one  head  teacher,  consist  of  boys  and  girls  who  are 
arranged  into  classes  on  the  sex  basis — i.e.  separate  classes 
for  boys  and  girls  respectively.  Indeed,  this  arrangement 
is  not  uncommon  in  some  mixed  schools,  where  the  lower 
classes  conform  to  the  designation  of  the  school,  but  the 
upper,  or  some,  classes  are  differentiated  on  sex  lines.  It 
is  often  convenient  to  classify  thus  when  there  are  suf- 
ficient boys  and  girls  of  approximately  equal  attainments 
to  form  two  or  more  classes  on  the  separation  basis. 

Each  department  has  its  own  head  teacher  as  a  rule. 
In  Scotland  one  pedagogic  head  usually  directs  all  depart- 
ments of  a  school.  In  the  United  States  the  practice  is  to 
have  superintendents,  each  of  whom  organises  and  super- 
vises a  group  of  schools  or  those  of  a  whole  city,  with  the 
aid  of  a  supervisor  or  principal  over  each  institution. 

The  junior  mixed  departments  vary  in  range  from 
Standards  I.  to  II.,  I.  to   III.,  or  I.  to  IV. 

In  a  school  department  children  are  grouped  together 
according  to  attainments  in  classes  varying  from  twenty 
to  about  sixty,  the  age  of  a  child  being  sometimes  a  factor 
in  this  classification.  Though  it  is  generally  found  that 
the  majority  of  the  children  in  a  standard  or  class  are 
approximately  of  the  same  age,  yet  age  ought  not  to  form 
the  basis  for  classification,  except  in  infant  schools,  and 
even  there  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  make  exceptions. 

1  In  all  these  cases  the  infants  must  form  a  division,  which  may 
consist  of  one  or  more  classes,  and  be  taught  separately. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  129 

Necessity  for  Differentiating  between  Infancy  and 
Childhood. — The  necessity  for  differentiation  in  the  educa- 
tional treatment  of  infancy  and  childhood  is  based  on  an 
every -day  knowledge  of  children  and  on  scientific  data 
furnished  by  physiology  and  psychology.  The  infant  of 
three  years  differs  so  much  from  the  infant  of  five,  and 
the  infant  of  five  from  the  child  of  seven,  that  specially 
graduated  instruction  is  necessary.  The  four  years  inter- 
vening between  three  and  seven  represent  a  much  greater 
difference  in  the  rate  of  physical  growth  than  the  four 
succeeding  years,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  cerebral 
growth. 

The  brain  of  the  normal  child,  according  to  Bain,  grows 
with  rapidity  till  the  seventh  year.  After  that  time  the 
growing  process  is  slower.  It  is  assumed  that  in  the  nor- 
mally healthy  child  growth  carries  with  it  development, 
or  the  conditions  that  make  for  development.  It  is  de- 
sirable, when  cerebral  growth1  is  taking  place  at  such  a 
rapid  rate  in  infancy,  and  putting,  therefore,  the  child's 
whole  system  to  a  severe  test,  that  the  greatest  care  should 
be  exercised  by  those  responsible  for  the  child's  training. 
During  all  periods  of  rapid  growth  the  bodily  organs 
become  weakened :  and  the  brain  is  as  much  a  part  of  the 
physical  organism  as  the  hand.  Most  of  the  vital  energies 
are  then  needed  for  the  labour  of  supplying  increased 
material  to  the  body.  If,  therefore,  the  brain  be  stimu- 
lated into  activities  during  the  period  of  diminished 
strength  arising  from  this  rapid  growth,  and  these  activi- 
ties severely  tax  the  child's  powers,  effects  inimical  to 
health  are  produced.  Diseases  "  are  often  to  be  traced 
back  to  an  intemperate  exercise  of  the  brain  functions 

1  "  Rapid  growth  should  be  accompanied,  or  quickly  followed,  by 
a  corresponding  change  in  development." — Fundamentals  of  Child 
Study. 

s.  o.  11 


130  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

in  both  physical  and  motor  regions  during  the  earlier 
periods  of  development,  when  the  greatest  care  and 
moderation  are  necessary."1 

Again,  "  The  earlier  the  imperfectly  developed  central 
nervous  system  is  subjected  to  a  strain  in  a  one-sided 
manner,  or  even  in  a  manifold  activity,  so  much  the  earlier 
does  it  become  dulled,  and  so  much  the  less  plasticity  it 
retains  for  later  use."2  Professor  Kirkpatrick  also  states, 
"It  is  altogether  probable  that  in  giving  children  the 
training  they  will  need  in  later  life,  at  a  time  when  they 
are  in  an  earlier  stage  of  development,  we  are,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  interfering  with  their  natural  order  of 
development."3 

Experience  shows  that  mental  exercises  can  be  easily 
mastered  by  children  over  seven  years  of  age  which  would 
be  altogether  out  of  place  at  an  earlier  age.  This  has  a 
special  application  to  such  abstract  subjects  as  grammar 
and  arithmetic.  Formal  reading,  again,  should  not  be 
taught  to  children  under  six  years  of  age.  Several  reasons 
may  be  advanced  in  support  of  this  view;  one  of  these,  how- 
ever, must  suffice  here,  viz.  the  long  sight  of  young  children. 

A  very  close  parallelism  exists  between  physical  and 
mental  development.  If  growth  is  not  to  be  retarded  and 
development  impaired,  the  young  child  must  have  a  varying 
diet  suited  to  its  bodily  needs  as  it  passes  through  the 
various  stages  of  development.  Absence  of  proper  nutri- 
tion, improper  or  over  feeding,  are  certain  to  lead  to 
serious  organic  consequences  later:  so  it  is  with  the  brain. 
Over-stimulation,  or  failure  to  apply  the  right  stimuli 
when  needed,  produces  corresponding  mental  effects. 
Inner  tendencies   must   be    responded    to    at    the   right 

1  Dr.  T.  B.  Hyslop,  The  Clinical  Journal,  Dec.  7,  1904. 

2  See  Mental  Development  in  the  Child,  by  W,  Preyer. 

3  See  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  131 

times  if  natural  development  is  to  result.  The  diffi- 
culty lies  in  knowing  exactly  what  kind  of  stimuli  to 
apply  and  when  to  apply  them,  so  far  as  brain  build- 
ing is  concerned.  The  natural  tendencies  of  the  child 
must  be  the  chief  guide.  Psychology  is  not  yet  suffici- 
ently advanced  to  be  able  to  state  this  in  exact  terms ; 
but  the  knowledge  that  has  been  acquired  in  this  direc- 
tion will  be  found  most  useful,  especially  when  added  to 
the  close  observations  of  the  teacher  in  the  class-room. 
It  is  known,  for  example,  that  plasticity  reaches  its  highest 
point  in  early  life.  This,  then,  is  the  fittest  time  to  correct 
impressions,  to  form  good  habits  and  to  lay  the  founda- 
tions of  character.  It  is  also  known  that  the  basis  of 
mental  power  is  both  sensory  and  motor  activity,  and  that 
will  development  depends  mainly  on  motor  ideas  or  ideas 
of  movement.1  These,  then,  are  three  fundamental  prin- 
ciples for  guidance  in  the  instruction  of  infants. 

A  young  child  on  entering  into  infant  school  life  is 
generally  rich  in  simple  ideas.  His  whole  environment  is 
an  endless  source  of  knowledge.  Comenius  asks,  "  Are  we 
not  placed  in  Nature's  garden  ?  Why  not  turn  over  the 
living  book  of  the  world  instead  of  old  papers  ?  "  Before, 
therefore,  attempting  to  take  the  child  outside  his  imme- 
diate surroundings,  and  thus,  as  Froebel  says,  "  damming 
up  the  springs  of  life,"  he  should  be  guided  to  a  fuller 
understanding  and  appreciation  of  that  which  has  come 
within  the  range  of  his  own  experience ;  for  in  this  under- 
standing and  appreciation  lies  the  essence  of  all  true  edu- 
cation. The  teacher  should  bear  in  mind,  too,  that  "  all 
speech  is  in  a  dead  language  until  it  finds  a  willing  and 
prepared  hearer."2 

1  But  see  the  chapter  on  Will  in  Principles  of  Psychology,  by 
Prof.  James. 

2  R.  L.  Stevenson. 


132  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  acquirement  of  clear  definite  simple  ideas  is  the  first 
necessary  step  in  sound  mental  development.  These  are  the 
material  with  which  the  young  brain  works.  If  it  is  faulty, 
that  which  grows  out  of  it  will  be  faulty  also.  "  There  can 
be  no  system,  no  order,  no  relationship,  without  clearness 
in  single  things."1  If  ideas  already  acquired  are  not  clear 
and  definite,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  endeavour  to  make 
them  so,  and  to  create  opportunities  for  fresh  perceptions. 
The  next  step  involves  close  observation,  the  noting  of 
different  and  common  qualities  in  various  objects.  Dis- 
crimination is  the  beginning  of  mind.  Immediately  a 
difference  is  self-noted  or  a  relationship  self-established 
thought  is  born.  The  third  step  consists  in  expression. 
This  may  of  course  take  various  forms — in  speech,  in 
gesture,  or  in  other  movements  involving  a  wide  range  of 
co-ordination.  These  three  stages  are  essential  to  brain 
building  or  cerebral  development.  They  correspond  with 
the  general  order  of  the  educative  process,  viz.  (1)  observa- 
tion, (2)  thinking,  (3)  application.  In  this  series,  however, 
observation  implies  a  stock  of  ideas,  and  thinking  connotes 
the  higher  forms  of  thought,  including  logical  reasoning. 

With  elaboration,  these  processes  give  a  field  wide 
enough  without  the  introduction  of  unnecessary  abstrac- 
tions. Some  abstraction  is,  of  necessity,  involved.  Trained 
in  this  way  on  the  basis  of  self-discovery,  and  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  things  before  words,  a  child  is  certain  to  make 
greater  progress  in  the  ordinary  subjects  of  instruction  that 
have  to  be  faced  later,  and  to  be  more  capable  of  indepen- 
dent mental  effort,  than  when  the  elements  of  the  three 
K's  are  prematurely  introduced  or  unwisely  applied. 

The  question  arises  as  to  ways  and  means.  There  is 
some  divergence  of  opinion  on  this  point.  Pestalozzi, 
Froebel,    Herbart,    and  a   multitude  of   others,  however, 

1  Herbart. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  133 

briefly  give  the  answer,  with  Froebel's  voice  resounding 
above  the  rest.  The  "  gifts  "  and  "  occupations,"  or  the 
application  of  the  principles  underlying  them,  should  be 
the  chief  means — in  other  words,  play  and  games  on  an 
organised  educational  basis.  These  tend  to  satisfy  curi- 
osity, the  greatest  force  in  intellectual  development,  and 
they  respond  to  the  natural  desire  for  social  intercourse. 
Play l  is  the  preparatory  school  for  what  has  to  be  accom- 
plished later  in  the  form  of  work.  It  teaches  reverence  for 
law,  exercises  the  imagination,  gives  opportunities  for 
frequent  change — without  which  attention  in  young  chil- 
dren cannot  be  sustained — and  creates  little  difficulties  to 
be  surmounted.  Indeed,  play  and  games,  without  diffi- 
culties, would  not  be  appreciated.  It  is  claimed  for  these, 
rightly  applied,  that  they  are  a  means  of  training  the 
senses,  directing  the  instincts,  cultivating  the  tastes, 
exciting  thought,  and  using  the  emotions  to  brace  the  will 
and  thereby  form  character. 

"  School  games  involve  a  wide  range  of  brain  activity. 
Most  of  the  senses  are  called  into  action.  Comparison 
and  judgment  are  needed."2  This  statement  was  made 
concerning  school  sports,  but  it  applies  almost  equally 
here. 

The  best  advice  that  could  be  offered  to  an  infants' 
teacher  would  be  to  make  full  use  of  the  instincts  of  her 
scholars,  since  these  are  given  for  the  protection  and  deve- 
lopment of  the  organism,  and  lie  at  the  root  of  all  attention 
in  its  simplest  forms.  From  instincts  spring  knowledge, 
emotion,  and  action.  They  are  the  basis  of  all  mental  life 
and  of  all  human  activity.3 

1  "During  the  first  five  years  a  child's  activities  belong  almost 
wholly  to  the  kind  called  play." — Fundamentals  of  Child  Study. 

2  Sir  William  Gowers.     The  Clinical  Journal,  Dec.  7,  1904. 

3  See  Social  Psychology,  Wm.  McDougall. 


134  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Remote  ends  cannot  be  kept  in  view  by  young  children. 
Such  ends  therefore  fail  to  stimulate  them  ;  but  on  the 
other  hand  immediate  ends  are  stimuli,  and  instinctive 
movements  are  designed  to  reach  them.  And  as  every 
instinct  has  a  corresponding  emotion,  each  with  its  own 
peculiarity  of  expression,  the  young  child  presents  a  wide 
field  for  the  play  of  the  teacher's  skill,  without  passing 
beyond  the  limits  defined  by  the  child's  natural  order  of 
development,  and  the  means  to  be  adopted  to  preserve 
that  order  and  to  further  that  development. 

The  following  principles  and  additional  points  demand 
special  attention  in  connection  with  the  training  of 
infants : — 

(1)  Frequent  change  and  variety  of  work  are  essential 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  child's  interest ;  and  interest 
should  be  the  teacher's  watchword; 

(2)  Change  of  activity  being  non-recuperative,  some  rest 
between  each  lesson  is  desirable. 

(3)  Every  perception  and  every  emotion  tend  to  express 
themselves  in  movement.  To  check  or  repress  the  ex- 
pression of  these  tendencies  is  to  arrest  or  retard 
development. 

(4)  A  time  unit  of  activity  will  normally  produce  three 
times  as  much  fatigue  in  the  afternoon  as  in  the  morning. 

(5)  The  younger  the  child,  the  more  susceptible  it  is  to 
injury.  Each  organ  has  its  own  mode  and  time  of  func- 
tioning. Exercise  of  organs  is  the  nourishment  of  them. 
The  harmony  of  the  organism  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
preserved.  If  the  muscles  are  unduly  exercised,  the  brain 
will  suffer ;  it  cannot  respond  adequately  to  the  demands 
made  upon  it.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  brain  is  over- 
stimulated,  nutriment  will  be  largely  drawn  there,  to  the 
impoverishment  of  other  parts  of  the  system. 

(6)  To  exercise  a  power  once  acquired  is  far  easier  and 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  135 

much  less  expensive  than  to  build  up  a  new  acquirement. 
Every  new  acquirement  means  a  series  of  nervous  growths 
and  the  establishment  of  a  number  of  beaten  tracks  in  the 
cerebral  substance.  !  This  is  in  accord  with  the  physio- 
logical law — the  tendency  for  nervous  energy  to  take  the 
same  cerebral  course  as  before.  Hence  the  need  for  careful 
differentiation  of  time  in  new  exercises,  and  hence  also  the 
child's  liking  for  repetition — for  going  over  beaten  tracks. 

(7)  "  Most  instincts  are  implanted  for  the  sake  of  giving 
rise  to  habits.  This  purpose  once  accomplished,  the  in- 
stincts themselves,  as  such,  have  no  raison  d'etre  in  the 
psychical  economy,  and  consequently  fade  away."2 

(8)  "  All  acquisitions  have  for  their  roots  inner  tenden- 
cies, and  all  inner  tendencies  remain  undeveloped  or 
develop  slowly,  without  the  action  of  favourable  outer 
influences."3 

(9)  "  Detailed  analyses  and  exact  definitions,  so  often 
required  of  young  children,  are  opposed  to  the  natural 
order  of  brain  development  and  therefore  destructive  of 
interest,  and  disturbing  to  the  natural  processes  of  mental 
growth."3 

(10)  "  Imagination  usually  reaches  its  climax  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  vears."3 

(11)  Unless  the  lower  centres  of  the  brain  are  functioned 
at  the  proper  time,  and  this  depends  mostly  on  motor 
activity  in  which  the  larger  muscles  play  an  important  part, 
the  higher  centres  upon  which  intellectuality  depends  have 
their  growth  impoverished  and  their  development  im- 
paired. 

(12)  The  instincts  that  should  have  a  dominant  place 
in  infant  education  are  those  of  play,  curiosity,  einula- 

1  See  Bain's  Education  as  a  Science. 

2  Principles  of  Psychology,  W.  James. 

3  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  Kirkp.itrick. 


136  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

tion,  construction,  imitation,  and  the  rhythmic,  social,  and 
moral  instincts. 

(13)  Infant  school  life  should  be  devoted  almost  wholly 
to  the  mother  tongue,  nature  work,  and  physical  culture. 
Music  is  included  in  language. 

The  Pubescent  Period.1 — From  investigations  made 
by  the  Child  Study  Department  of  Chicago,  it  appears  that 
the  pubescent  age  represents  the  period  of  greatest  ex- 
tremes in  he:ght,  weight,  grip  and  vital  capacity.  It  is  a 
critical  age  physically  and  mentally,  because  it  represents 
another  period  of  rapid  growth.  If  at  this  time  the  vital 
energies  are  mainly  directed  to  the  brain,  the  other  organs 
of  the  body  may  become  impoverished,  and  consequently 
improperly  or  imperfectly  developed.  Relaxation  of  ordi- 
nary work  does  not  appear  to  be  absolutely  necessary,  but 
overstrain  of  any  kind  at  this  period  is  likely  to  be 
attended  with  more  serious  consequences  than  at  other 
times.  Health  is  dependent  on  equilibrium  in  all  parts 
of  the  organism. 

Size  of  Departments. — What  should  be  the  size  of  a 
school  department  in  relation  to  directive  and  supervisory 
power  is  a  question  essentially  administrative.  It  has 
recently  been  laid  down  by  the  Board  of  Education  that 
new  schools  should  not,  as  a  rule,  exceed  1,200  in  accom- 
modation, that  is,  roughly,  400  in  each  department.  In 
Berlin  the  accommodation  of  a  department  often  ranges 
from  700  to  1000.  In  the  United  States,  again,  particularly 
in  New  York,  and  also  in  the  north  of  England,  there  are 
schools  with  about  2000  scholars  supervised  by  one  head. 
Looking  at  this  question  from  the  purely  educational 
standpoint,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  a  sound  knowledge 

1  See  Adolescence,  Dr.  Stanley  Hall. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  137 

of  the  chief  characteristics  of  each  pupil  on  the  part  of  the 
head  teacher  would  be  of  the  utmost  value.  This  know- 
ledge can,  of  course,  be  best  obtained  when  the  area  of 
supervision  is  comparatively  small.  Scholars  in  primary 
schools  do  not  always  possess  those  home  advantages  in 
general  education  which  pupils  in  secondary  schools  gene- 
rally have.  Frequent  opportunities  for  personal  contact  of 
the  head  with  individual  scholars  are  desirable,  too,  on 
general  grounds.  Caesar,  it  is  said,  could  call  every  soldier 
in  his  legions  by  name. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  larger  the  school  the  greater,  as 
a  rule,  is  the  facility  for  perfect  organisation,  especially 
sound  classification ;  it  further  gives  each  scholar  a  wider 
field  in  human  experience,  though  there  is  a  tendency  for 
him  to  be  lost  in  the  crowd:  and  assuming  that  the  re- 
muneration of  the  head  is  proportional  to  the  size  of  the 
school,  a  teacher  of  superior  attainments  and  ability  is 
more  likely  to  take  the  leading  part  in  its  direction. 

The  Infant  School. — As  already  stated,  the  law  oper- 
ates in  the  way  of  compulsory  attendance  when  a  child 
attains  the  age  of  five  years.  It  has,  however,  been  a 
fairly  general  practice  to  admit  children  when  three  years 
old  if  the  parents  so  desire,  the  Board  of  Education 
allowing  such  children  to  be  registered.1 

In  Germany  and  in  the  Netherlands  there  are  no  Mu- 
nicipal or  State  infant  schools,  infant  instruction  being 
left  almost  entirely  to  private  enterprise.     In  the  United 

1  Art.  43  (a),  Code  1910. 

Note. — Children  under  three  years  of  age  are  allowed  to  attend 
school,  but  their  attendances  are  not  registered.  (Parliamentary 
Secretary,  Board  of  Education,  House  of  Commons,  March  10,  1904.) 
The  Board  leave  the  question  of  admitting  children  under  Jive  "to 
the  di  cretion  of  the  Local  Education  Authorities.  "—Pre/".  Memor- 
andum ,  Code  1910. 


138  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

States  infant  schools  such  as  exist  in  this  country  are 
not  to  be  found.  There  are,  however,  some  Kindergarten 
schools  to  which  infants  are  admitted  between  the  ages  of 
four  and  six.  These  have  been  established  in  recent  years. 
In  France  two  institutions  take  the  place  of  the  English 
infant  school,  viz.  the  Ecole  Maternelle  and  Classes 
Enf  an  tines. 

Ecoles  Maternelles. — The  Ecoles  Maternelles l  are 
State  schools  for  children  of  both  sexes  between  the  ages 
of  two  and  seven.  The  official  programme  states:  "The 
Ecole  Maternelle  is  not  a  school  in  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word:  it  is  the  transition  from  the  family  to  the 
school ;  it  retains  the  indulgence  and  affectionate  gentle- 
ness of  home,  while  initiating  the  child  into  the  work  and 
regularity  of  school."  It  further  states  that  the  efficiency 
must  not  be  judged  by  the  number  of  lessons  and  of 
subjects  taught  nor  by  the  character  of  the  instruction, 
"  but  rather  by  the  sum  of  good  influences  which  are  brought 
to  bear  on  the  child,  by  the  pleasure  which  he  is  made  to 
take  in  the  school,  by  the  habits  of  order,  cleanliness, 
politeness,  attention,  obedience,  and  intellectual  activity 
which  he  acquires,  so  to  speak,  in  playing."  Such  schools 
do  not  provide  accommodation  for  more  than  two  hundred 
children,  and  are  open,  for  the  convenience  of  parents  com- 
pelled to  leave  home  daily,  from  7  a.m.  to  7  p.m.  in  the 
summer,  and  from  8  a.m.  to  6  p.m.  in  the  winter.  The 
time,  however,  given  to  instruction  per  day  is  only  three 
hours  and  three-quarters,  and  no  lesson  is  allowed  to 
exceed  twenty  minutes  in  duration.  The  subjects  of  in- 
struction comprise  (1)  moral  education,  (2)  object  lessons, 
(3)  reading,  writing,  drawing,  (4)  mother  tongue  exercises, 

1  See  article  by  Miss  M.  S.  Beard,  Special  Reports,  Vol.  8.  Also 
Special  Reports,  Vol.  7,  p.  66. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  139 

(5)  natural  history  and  geography,  (6)  hand  and  eye 
training  exercises,  (7)  singing  and  physical  exercises, 
(8)  recitation.  This  formidable  array  of  subjects  is  ar- 
ranged on  the  time-table  on  the  principle  that  change  is 
restful;  it  may  be  locally  restful,  but  is  not  wholly  so. 
Change,  however,  does  serve  to  sustain  interest.  There  is 
an  intermission  of  a  few  minutes  between  each  lesson,  and 
children  under  five  years  of  age  are  not  taught  reading  and 
writing. 

Provision  is  made  on  the  premises  for  giving  the  children 
their  meals  either  on  payment  or  gratuitously,  according 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  parents.  Women  helpers 
other  than  teachers  assist  in  this  work  and  give  all 
desirable  attention  to  the  health  and  cleanliness  of  the 
scholars.  Among  the  Parisian  schools  of  this  type,  each 
teacher  has  charge  of  about  50  children. 

Classes  Enfantines. — These  classes  are  of  two  kinds : 
one  serving  to  bridge  over  the  gap  between  the  ecole  mater- 
nelle  and  the  ordinary  primary  school,  and  usually  found 
in  large  towns ;  the  other  existing  in  rural  districts,  and 
corresponding  mainly  in  age  limitations  and  subjects  of 
instruction  to  the  infant  schools  in  this  country. 

Ecoles  Gardiennes  or  Jardins  d'Enfants. — These 
are  Belgian  schools  for  children  between  the  ages  of  three 
and  six.  The  principles  applied  in  the  instruction  are 
those  which  favour  Froebelian  teaching  generally.  The 
work  of  the  children  is  largely  occupational  and  centres 
round  the  mother  tongue,  nature  study,  and  the  duties 
of  life — duties  to  self,  to  the  family,  to  mankind  generally, 
and  to  the  country  of  one's  birth.  Reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic  are  taught  to  the  older  scholars  in  some  of  these 
schools. 


140  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Kinderhorte,  etc. — In  Berlin  and  Charlottenburg,1  and 
other  towns  associated  with  the  more  recent  school  build- 
ings, there  are  rooms  (horte)  reserved  for  children,  who 
need  at  least  quasi -parental  attention.  The  children  may 
remain  in  these  rooms  from  2  to  7  p.m.,  under  the  charge 
of  superintendents.  The  institution  is  mainly  intended  for 
the  care  of  children  outside  school  hours.  Play  and  pre- 
paration of  lessons  are  the  chief  means  of  employment. 
Meals  are  supplied  under  similar  conditions  to  those  asso- 
ciated with  the  ecoles  maternelles.  The  school  authorities, 
as  a  rule,  lend  the  rooms,  while  the  upkeep  is  provided  for 
by  private  benevolence.  Of  late  years  the  activities  of  the 
horte  have  been  greatly  extended.  In  summer  they  some- 
times expand  into  vacation  schools,  and  the  societies  asso- 
ciated with  them  often  arrange  excursions  for  the  children 
and  take  a  general  interest  in  their  welfare. 

The  creche  has  now  become  a  reality  in  most  European 
countries  and  in  America.  Its  existence,  however,  in  most 
places,  depends  on  private  effort.  Mrs.  Hilton's  creche, 
established  in  1871  at  Stepney  Causeway,  showed  how 
successfully  and  usefully  such  institutions  could  be  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  poor  localities.  They  have  accordingly 
multiplied  and  are  now  to  be  found  in  most  large  urban 
centres.  The  rules  that  govern  these  institutions  vary; 
but,  generally,  they  are  open  from  7.30  a.m.  to  7.30  p.m. 
Children  from  three  weeks  to  three  or  five  years  old  are 
received  daily.  Great  care  is  taken  to  see  that  all  admitted 
are  free  from  infection,  etc.  There  is  every  reasonable 
provision  for  health  and  comfort,  and  there  are  all  the 
usual  accessories  for  play.  Cots  are  provided  for  infants. 
The  staff  usually  consists  of  a  matron  and  trained  nurses. 

From  the  standpoint   of  school   attendance   alone   the 

1  See  Report  of  Mr.  G.  Andrew  to  the  Scotch  Education  Depart- 
ment, 1904. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  141 

creche  is  a  useful  institution,  for  boys  and  girls  who  ought 
to  be  at  school  are  often  kept  at  home  for  nursing  duties 
while  the  mother  is  necessarily  at  work.  On  humanitarian 
grounds,  however,  the  creche' s  highest  functions  may  be 
said  to  rest. 

Infant  Schools  in  this  Country. — The  English  infant 
school  is  invariably  mixed,  and  classification  is  based  prin- 
cipally upon  age.  Originally  these  schools  were  intended 
to  confine  their  instruction  to  purely  infant  needs ;  but 
congestion  in  senior  departments  and  organisation  de- 
mands have  sometimes  necessitated  the  retention  of  chil- 
dren in  the  infant  department  after  they  have  reached  the 
age  at  which,  under  more  satisfactory  conditions,  they 
should  be  drafted  to  the  senior  schools.  Such  children 
are  usually  formed  into  a  Standard  I.  class,  and  in  rare 
cases,  as  a  temporary  measure,  even  a  Standard  II.  class 
is  found. 

G-enerally  an  infant  means  "  a  scholar  under  the  age  of 
eight  years." 

Accepting  this  definition  of  an  infant,  and  assuming  that 
children  enter  school  about  four  years  of  age,  it  is  evident 
that  a  course  of  instruction  extending  over  three  years 
would  be  the  minimum  of  requirement.  Indeed,  in  many 
schools  children  only  three  years  old  are  admitted,  and 
then  a  course  extending  over  four  years  must  be  applied, 
supposing  that  in  each  case  the  highest  class  represents 
Standard  I.  Clearly,  it  is  desirable  to  have  separate 
classes  for  each  grade;  but  in  small  schools  this  is  not 
always  practicable,  and  a  modified  syllabus  must  then  be 
adopted,  since  scholars  of  various  ages  would  have  to 
form  one  class.  Supposing,  however,  a  department  has 
sufficient  children  to  make  four  classes,  each  with  its  own 
teacher,   the   organisation    becomes    simple,   and   usually 


142  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

assumes  the  following  form,  if   there  is  a  fairly  equable 
distribution  of  children  in  regard  to  age : — 

sij  *    i         *   j  General  attainments x  at  close  of  educa- 

Class.         at  close  of  educa-  ^woj  year, 

tional  year.  J 

Standard  I.     Over  seven        Standard   I.    attainments    or 

their  equivalent. 

Class     i.  Over  six  Such   as   would    enable    the 

children  to  commence  the  work 
of  Standard  I.  or  its  equiva- 
lent. 

Class    ii.  Over  five  Such    as   would    enable    the 

children  to  commence  the  work 
of  Class  i. 

Class  iii.  Over  four  Such    as   would    enable    the 

children  to  commence  the  work 
of  Class  ii.  Class  iii.  therefore 
would  represent  three  removes 
from  Standard  I. 

In  large  infant  departments  there  are  as  many  as  ten  or 
twelve  classes.  The  common  practice  has  been — it  is  now 
gradually  disappearing — to  number  these  classes  from  one 
to  ten  or  twelve,  Class  i.  being  the  highest — which  in  the 
absence  of  a  knowledge  of  the  courses  of  instruction 
associated  with  each  class  is  very  misleading ;  whereas  the 
adoption  of  a  suggestive  nomenclature  like  that  indicated 
below  would  place  everyone  in  possession  of  the  approxi- 
mate position  of  the  class,  without  necessarily  referring 
to  the  curriculum.  If  there  are  six  classes  in  an  infant 
school — and  no  Standard  I. — two  containing  children  who 
will  be  over  six  years  of  age  at  the  end  of  the  year,  two 

1  This  arrangement  represents  the  usual  practice  ;  but  each  head 
mistress  must  judge  for  herself  what  the  nature  of  the  attainments 
should  be. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  143 

with  those  who  will  be  over  five,  and  two  with  those  who 
will  be  over  four,  a  definite  nomenclature  is  one  represent- 
ing yearly  steps,  thus — 

Class  i.  (A)  Class  ii.  (A)  Class  iii.   (A) 

Class  i.  (B)  Class  ii.   (B)  Class  iii.   (B) 

Similarly,  if  there  are  nine  classes, — 

Class  i.  (A),  Class  i.  (B),  Class  i.  (C),  and  so  on. 

This  simple  nomenclature  will  avoid  confusion,  as  it  is 
constant  in  meaning,  suggestive  in  form,  and  capable  of 
permanent  and  general  application. 

Another  plan,  perhaps  a  better  one,  is  to  call  each  class 
a  grade.1 

G-rade  i.  would  then  be  the  lowest  class  ;  G-rade  ii.  would 
represent  a  year's  advance  beyond  G-rade  i. ;  and  Grade  iii. 
would  be  the  highest  class — one  remove  from  Standard  I., 
which  might  well  be  called  Grade  iv. 

For  two  or  more  classes  in  the  same  grade  the  lettering 
should  be  used,  as  alreadv  shown.  As  the  word  Standard 
is  gradually  being  dropped  in  its  application  to  classes,  so 
there  is  need  for  the  acceptance  of  the  Grade  in  senior 
schools  also. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  there  is  no  necessity 
to  organise  a  school  on  the  basis  of  yearly  courses  of 
instruction.  Schemes  of  work  can  be  equally  well  de- 
signed to  cover  a  term  or  half-year.  The  results,  however, 
cannot  of  necessity  be  so  appreciable  at  the  end  of  a  few 
months  as  at  the  close  of  the  year ;  but  they  are,  never- 
theless, adaptable  to  both  definition  and  measurement  at  the 
hands  of  the  expert. 

Organisation  is  generally  too  rigid  with  its  iron-bound 

1  This  is  adopted  in  the  United  States,  where  the  grades,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest  class  (Grade  i. )  in  the  Kindergarten,  are 
continued  throughout  the  senior  schools. 


144  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

compartments  in  the  form  of  classes  ;  it  needs  more  elas- 
ticity or  fluidity.  Terminal  or  half-yearly  classification 
is  not  designed  for  pressure,  but  to  facilitate  an  easy  and 
natural  flow  of  promotion  from  one  class  to  another. 
There  is,  however,  less  need  for  this  terminal  classifica- 
tion in  infant  schools — except  in  the  highest  classes — 
than  in  senior  departments. 

If  the  playground  is  suitable,  every  opportunity  should 
be  seized  to  have  some  classes  under  instruction  there. 

As  it  often  happens  that  children  are  admitted  to  infant 
schools  over  five  or  six  years  of  age  who  have  had  no 
previous  systematic  training,  it  becomes  a  difficult  matter 
to  allocate  them  to  suitable  classes,  especially  so  when 
such  admissions  take  place  at  an  advanced  period  of  the 
educational  year.  This  ever-recurring  difficulty  accentu- 
ates the  need  for  an  ungraded  room  to  which  such  children 
could  be  sent,  at  least  for  a  few  months. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  general  efficiency  it  is  prob- 
ably desirable,  instead  of  admitting  children  at  all  times 
and  seasons,  only  to  allow  admissions  at  two  or  three 
stated  periods  of  the  year.  Certain  exceptions  to  this 
arrangement  would,  of  course,  be  necessary  to  meet  special 
cases.  It  might  apply  almost  absolutely  to  all  children 
under  five.  Those  over  that  age,  however,  have  a  statu- 
tory right  of  admission  to  some  school. 

The  Kindergarten. — The  ordinary  infant  school  varies 
greatly  in  regard  to  the  degree  and  spirit  of  application  of 
Kindergarten  principles.  However,  the  spirit  that  underlies 
the  teaching  in  many  of  these  schools  is  admirable ;  and 
so  far  as  the  younger  scholars  therein  are  concerned,  the 
character  of  the  training  corresponds  with  that  given  in 
the  ordinary  Kindergarten. 

The  Kindergartens  are  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  145 

principles  of  instruction  underlying  Froebel's  teaching. 
Everything,  therefore,  is  of  a  practical  character,  and  the 
classes  are  small  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  ordinary 
infant  school.  The  Kindergartens  of  Germany  are  mostly 
private  institutions.  In  America,  where  under  State  aid 
these  institutions  are  rapidly  increasing  in  number,  the 
children  attend  school  in  the  mornings  only  as  a  rule,  while 
in  the  afternoons  the  teachers  devote  their  time  to  visiting 
parents  in  order  to  enlist  their  sympathy  and  co-operation 
in  the  work  of  training.  These  visits,  too,  enable  the 
teacher  to  obtain,  through  the  mother,  an  intimate  know- 
ledge of  a  child's  peculiarities.  In  the  American  Kin- 
dergartens about  twenty-five  children  form  a  class.  In 
like  manner,  at  the  Kindergarten  School,  Froebel  Insti- 
tute, London,  no  class  is  allowed  to  exceed  twenty-five 
scholars. 

Age  is,  of  course,  the  chief  basis  of  classification  in  these 
schools.  A  transition  department,  between  the  Kinder- 
garten and  the  regular  primary  school,  is  to  be  found  in 
various  places. 

Inter-departmental  Promotion. — The  general  prin- 
ciples that  should  operate  in  the  promotion  of  infants  to 
senior  departments  may  be  stated  thus  : — 

(1)  Drafts  should  be  made  terminally  or  half -yearly. 

(2)  Age  should  be  the  chief  consideration  in  making  these 
drafts,  unless  the  circumstances  are  very  exceptional.  This 
applies  to  both  minimum  and  maximum  ages.  No  child, 
for  example,  should  be  drafted  who  has  not  reached  the 
sixth  year. 

(3)  Attainments  should  also  be  a  factor,  subject  to  the  age 
qualification. 

(4)  Disposition  may  also  be  a  determining  factor.  A 
vicious  child  should  be  removed  from  the  atmosphere  of 

s.  o.  12 


146  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  infant  school  as  soon  as  possible  after  reaching  the  age 
of  seven  years,  independently  of  attainments. 
In  "accordance  with  these  principles — 

(1)  Promotion  of  pupils  should  be  made  either  (a)  at 
the  end  of  each  half-year,  or  (b)  at  the  end  of  each  of  the 
school  terms,  if  the  school  should  be  organised  on  a  ter- 
minal system.  Promotions  may  also  be  made  at  other 
times  when  desirable. 

(2)  Pupils  who  will  attain  seven  years  of  age  during 
the  ensuing  half-year  (or  school  term)  should  not  be 
retained  in  the  infants'  department  beyond  the  beginning 
of  that  half-year  (or  term),  provided  there  is  no  Stan- 
dard I.  class  there. 

(3)  Where  there  is  a  Standard  I.  or  an  authorised  class 
of  older  children  corresponding  approximately  to  the  lowest 
class  of  a  junior  or  senior  department,  pupils  who  will 
attain  the  age  of  eight  years  during  the  ensuing  half-year 
(or  school  term)  should  not  be  retained  in  the  department 
beyond  the  beginning  of  that  half-year  (or  term). 

(4)  Where  there  is  a  Standard  II.  or  an  authorised 
class  of  older  children  corresponding  approximately  to 
the  lowest  class  but  one  in  a  junior  or  senior  department, 
pupils  who  will  attain  the  age  of  nine  years  during  the 
ensuing  half-year  (or  school  term)  should  not  be  retained 
in  the  department  beyond  the  beginning  of  that  half-year 
(or  term) . 

(5)  A  head  mistress  who  has  been  unable  to  meet  these 
requirements,  because  certain  pupils  are  apparently  not 
fitted  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  the  upper  department,  or 
who  desires  to  promote  pupils  other  than  those  enumerated 
in  the  above  clauses,  should,  after  consultation  with  the 
head  teacher  of  the  appropriate  upper  department,  report 
the  facts  to  the  Managers  or  Local  Education  Authority, 
giving  a  list  of  the  pupils  affected. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  147 

These  rules l  should  apply  in  all  ordinary  cases.  Where 
conditions  are  exceptional,  mollifications  would,  of  course, 
be  admissible. 

With  regard  to  promotion  from  junior  mixed  depart- 
ments, the  general  principles  cited  above  should  apply 
with  some  qualifications.  (1)  would  stand.  Concerning 
(2)  and  (3)  not  age,  but  attainments,  should  be  the  chief 
consideration.     (4)  might  be  ignored. 

As  junior  schools  vary  so  much  in  their  upward  limits, 
it  is  not  possible  to  lay  down  equally  general  rules  for  all 
of  them  in  regard  to  promotion  to  the  senior  departments 
without  making  definite  reference  to  Standards  ;  but  taking 
rule  (4)  above,  that  would  apply  to  all  schools  where  the 
upward  limit  is  Standard  II 

Similarly,  if  the  upward  limits  are  Standards  III.  or  IV., 
the  rule  in  question  should  operate  by  the  substitution  of 
ten  and  eleven  respectively  for  nine  years.  Eule  (5)  should 
apply  to  all  exceptions. 

When  a  head  teacher  of  an  infants'  or  junior  depart- 
ment has  determined  the  number  of  pupils  to  be  promoted 
to  an  upper  department  in  accordance  with  these  prin- 
ciples and  rules,  she  should  forward  to  the  head  teacher 
of  the  upper  department  at  the  middle  of  each  half-year 
(or  term)  a  statement  of  the  approximate  number  of  pupils 
to  be  so  promoted ;  and  towards  the  end  of  the  half-year 
(or  term)  should  send  a  list  of  such  pupils  on  the  following 
official  form  provided  for  that  purpose. 

The  head  teacher  of  the  junior  and  senior  department  to 
which  pupils  are  to  be  promoted  in  accordance  with  these 

1  In  a  slightly  modified  form  these  rules  are  in  operation  in  the 
County  of  London  ;  but  they  are  more  imperative  in  form  than  is 
expressed  here.  They  represent  the  minimum  requirements  for 
promotion.  Obviously,  pupils  of  exceptional  ability  may  be  pro- 
moted earlier  than  the  age  specified. 


148 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


rules  should  reserve  places  for  the  approximate  number  of 
pupils  who  will  be  so  promoted. 

If  there  is  not  accommodation  available  in  the  junior  or 
senior  department  for  the  pupils  whose  intended  promo- 
tion has  been  so  notified,  the  head  teacher  of  such  depart- 
ment should  inform  the  Managers  or  Local  Education 
Authority  immediately  on  receiving  the  notification  in 
question. 

Inter-departmental  Promotion. 


Term  or  half- 

year 

ending 

19 

Order  of  Merit. 
Name. 

Date  of  Birth  as 
recorded. 

Class  in 
Depart- 
ment. 

Date  of 
Admission 
to  Depart- 
ment. 

Address. 

Remarks,  if  any, 

re  attainments 

or  any 

peculiarity. 

(Surname  first.) 

Day. 

Month. 

Year. 

(Signed) 


.Head  Mistress. 


Whether  prior  to  actual  promotion  examination  tests 
should  be  applied,  under  the  dual  direction  of  the  head 
teachers  concerned,  is  a  matter  for  the  Local  Education 
Authority  or  the  head  teachers  themselves.  On  the  whole, 
the  wisest  course  would  appear  to  be  to  leave  the  whole 
question,  subject  to  the  rules  already  indicated,  to  the 
discretion  of  the  head  teacher  who  has  been  responsible 
for  the  training  of  the  children  to  date. 

Co-education  v.  Separation. — Separation  of  the  sexes 
versus  co-education.    Much  discussion  has  taken  place  con- 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  149 

cerning  the  relative  merits  of  these  two  systems.  In 
America  co-education  has  been  in  operation  a  long  time, 
and,  it  is  claimed,  with  highly  beneficial  results.  In 
Scotland  mixed  schools  are  common,  owing  probably  to 
the  influence  of  Stow.  Co-education,  too,  is  the  general 
rule  in  Holland  and  Switzerland.  Many  other  countries 
also  accept  the  principle  when  applied  to  rural  districts 
where  the  population  is  small ;  but  economy  in  these  cases 
is  probably  the  determining  factor. 

In  this  country  the  application  of  the  principle  has  been 
extended  considerably  in  recent  years ;  but  the  separation 
of  the  sexes,  as  in  Germany  and  Hungary,  is  fairly  general 
in  the  towns,  except  perhaps  in  the  north  of  England  and, 
of  course,  in  Scotland.  The  curricula  of  junior  mixed  de- 
partments are  similar  to  the  Conrs  elementaire1  in  France, 
but  sometimes  wholly  or  partially  cover  the  Cours  moyen. 

Pros,  and  Cons. — The  advantages  of  the  separation  of 
the  sexes  in  education  are — 

(1)  Neither  boys  nor  girls  are  retarded  in  subjects  for 
which  they  respectively  show  natural  aptitudes.  (2)  There 
are  fewer  breaks  in  the  work  of  a  class  as  a  whole  than 
when  boys  and  girls  are  mixed.  Cookery,  laundry,  house- 
wifery, needlework  take  the  girls  away  from  the  ordinary 
school  work  several  times  a  week — especially  the  elder 
girls. 

(3)  The  discipline  that  is  suitable  for  a  boy  is  not,  as  a 
rule,  equally  suitable  for  a  girl.  (4)  The  boy  is  more 
likely  to  get  a  virile  character  under  the  sole  direction  of  a 
master ;  and  the  girl,  too,  would  have  a  better  opportunity, 

1  In  France  the  elementary  schools  have  three  grades,  standards 
or  steps,  viz.  Cours  ilementaire,  Cotirs  moyen,  Cours  supdrieur. 
These  correspond  respectively  with  the  ages  6  to  9,  9  to  11,  11 
to  13. 


150  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

when  trained  by  a  mistress,  to  develop  that  sweetness  of 
disposition  which  generally  distinguishes  the  best  of  her 
sex. 

(5)  The  curriculum  can  be  better  arranged,  without  give 
and  take,  to  suit  the  needs  of  boys  and  girls  and  the 
different  ends  in  view  in  their  education.  (6)  The  field  of 
a  woman's  work  is,  as  a  rule,  very  different  from  that  of  a 
man's.  Cultivation  of  the  qualities  essential  to  each  is 
better  secured  by  separation.  (7)  Boys  in  the  pubescent 
stage  are  apt  to  become  amorously  sentimental,  and  thus 
have  their  mental  equilibrium  disturbed. 

The  advantages  of  co-education  may  be  summed  up  as 
follow : — 

(1)  It  is  an  aid  to  organisation  in  small  schools ;  it  is 
also  an  aid  to  classification  in  general  subjects  in  all 
schools. 

(2)  It  produces  a  spirit  of  camaraderie  between  the 
sexes. 

(3)  It  exercises  a  chastening  influence  on  the  boys  and 
makes  them  less  self-conscious.  The  girls  too  become  more 
self-reliant. 

(4)  The  boys  show  a  greater  respect  for  girls  and 
women. 

(5)  Discipline  is  more  easily  obtained  if  the  staff  is 
thoroughly  efficient.  With  a  weak  teacher,  however,  diffi- 
culties are  increased. 

(6)  Boys  are  put  more  upon  their  mettle,  as  they  have 
to  compete  with  the  girls'  natural  qualities  of  patient 
endeavour  and  steadiness  of  aim. 

Co-education  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage  in  this 
country,  considered  from  a  purely  educational  standpoint. 
There  is,  however,  a  growing  tendency  to  discourage  junior 
mixed  departments.  Mixed  schools  generally  are  more  the 
outcome  of  economical  than  of  educational  claims. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  151 

National  characteristics  must  always  be  a  recognised 
factor  in  dealing  with  this  interesting  problem,  and  to  a 
great  extent  also  the  peculiarity  of  local  conditions.  In 
some  large  urban  centres,  for  example,  there  are  districts 
where  poverty  appears  to  be  at  its  lowest  ebb.  Co-educa- 
tion is  prohibitive  there. 

Subject  to  this  latter  qualification,  mixed  schools  seem 
to  find  their  highest  justification  in  evening  classes  and 
evening  education  generally.  But  institutions  of  this 
character  are  organised  as  a  rule  on  an  entirely  different 
basis  from  that  of  the  day  school — students  are  grouped 
according  to  subjects :  and  this  mode  of  classification  wipes 
off  the  slate  some  of  the  objections  to  co-education. 

Principles  of  Staffing. — Every  school  must  have  a 
"  sufficient  and  suitable  staff."  In  determining  the  suffi- 
ciency and  suitability  of  the  staff  consideration  must  be 
given  to,  (1)  The  nature  of  the  premises  generally — number 
and  size  of  class-rooms  and  their  distribution.  (2)  The 
number  of  scholars  on  the  roll  or  in  habitual  or  average 
attendance.  (3)  The  age  and  attainments  of  the  scholars 
and  the  mode  of  classification.  (4)  The  character  of  the 
courses  of  instruction,  with  special  reference  to  practical 
work.  (5)  The  ability  of  the  teachers,  their  status,1  and 
the  suitability  of  the  work  assigned  to  them.  (6)  The 
circumstances  and  requirements  of  the  locality.  (7)  The 
organisation  and  co-ordination  of  the  various  schools  in 
the  area.  (8)  Whether  all  the  members  of  the  staff  are 
working  whole  or  part  time.2 

In  most  schools,  for  there  is  generally  but  little  varia- 
tion  in   average    attendance,   the   staff   for   any   year   is 

1  See  Arts.  11  and  12,  also  Schedule  I.,  Code  1910. 

2  Subject  to  these  qualifications,  the  staff  is  determined  numeri- 
cally by  Art.  12  (a)  of  the  Code. 


152  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

usually  determined,  ah  initio,  on  the  basis  of  the  average 
attendance  of  the  previous  year,  provided  the  conditions 
have  not  materially  changed. 

Special  staffing  arrangements  are  demanded  by  the  Board 
of  Education  for  schools  in  areas  with  a  small  population.1 

The  minimum  staff  scale,  as  set  out  in  the  Code,  has 
evidently  been  adopted  with  many  peculiar  circumstances 
and  a  variety  of  conditions  in  view.  It  is  not  necessarily 
intended  to  suit  all  buildings,  but  is  rather  an  indication 
of  the  lowest  point  to  which  a  staff  may  fall,  and  is  then 
only  acceptable  as  a  condition  of  efficiency. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  in  the  previous  chapter  how 
desirable  it  is  to  have  a  staffing  basis  much  more  generous 
than  this  scale  demands.  Having  regard  to  the  warning 
note2  in  the  Code,  it  is  manifestly  the  wish  of  the  Board  of 
Education  that  schools  should,  as  a  rule,  be  staffed  more 
generously  than  the  scale  indicates. 

The  usual  scale  applied  by  the  Education  Authority  for 
London,  where  the  Council  schools  are  mostly  large,  is 
roughly  one  certificated  teacher  for  every  fifty  children 
in  average  attendance,  the  head  teacher,  centre  instructors, 
visiting  teachers,  student  teachers,  and  pupil  teachers  not 
being  reckoned,  as  a  rule,  for  this  purpose.  In  practice, 
however,  for  there  are  cases  in  which  the  class-rooms  are 
sometimes  below  the  average  in  size — accommodation  vary- 
ing from  thirty  to  forty, — the  staff  works  out  as  a  whole  at 
one  certificated  assistant  for  an  average  of  about  forty-six3 
children  in  attendance.  There  is  no  fixed  scale  in  force 
for  the  Non-Provided  schools.4     The  existing  practice  has 

1  See  Art.  12  (6)  and  Art.  32,  Code  1910.         2  Art.  12,  ibid. 

3  The  West  Lambeth  Teachers'  Association  requested  that  classes 
in  infant  and  senior  departments  be  limited  to  a  roll  of  forty  and 
thirty  respectively.     See  The  Schoolmaster,  Jan.  7,  1905. 

4  Here  the  average  per  teacher  is  below  40. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  153 

grown  out  of  general  policy,  pointing  to  an  unwritten 
law  capable  of  some  elasticity  to  suit  the  circumstances 
of  each  school.1 

It  is  reasonable,  in  small  schools,  to  consider  the  head 
teacher,  not  solely  in  the  light  of  a  director  and  super- 
visor, but  also  as  a  class  master  or  class  mistress  perma- 
nently responsible  for  the  work  of  a  definite  section  of 
the  school.  The  limit  of  school  accommodation  to  deter- 
mine such  class  responsibility  must  vary  with  circum- 
stances ;  but  generally  it  may  be  said  that  when  the  yearly 
average  attendance  does  not  exceed  140  this  class-attach- 
ment should  operate  wholly,  or  at  least  to  a  large  extent. 

The  scale  of  staffing  in  the  Metropolitan  area  is,  on 
the  whole,  much  more  liberal  than  that  adopted  by  most 
education  authorities.  In  one  or  two  areas  however, 
London  is  surpassed  in  liberality  of  staffing  arrangements. 
Hornsey,  perhaps,  takes  the  foremost  position  in  this  re- 
spect, for  there  a  certificated  teacher  is  limited  to  forty 
scholars ;  and  the  average  attendance  per  teacher  works 
out  considerably  below  that  figure. 

In  this  brief  reference  to  staffing  principles  it  is  assumed 
that  the  school  is  organised  on  the  usual  class  basis.  If, 
however,  it  is  organised  differently,  e.g.  wholly  or  partially 
on  the  principle  of  specialisation  or  on  a  subject  basis,  con- 
siderations would  have  to  come  in  which  have  not  been 
weighed  here.  Reference  to  them  will  be  found  in  another 
part  of  this  volume. 

1  "The  staff  of  a  school  is  fixed  by  the  Committee,  after  having 
given  due  consideration  to  the  circumstances  of  each  school. '» 
There  exists,  however,  one  rule,  often  generously  interpreted,  viz. 
that  where  the  accommodation  of  a  school  or  department  does  not 
exceed  150,  the  head  teacher  is  regarded  as  a  teaching  unit.  The 
application  of  this  rule  is  necessarily  associated  mostly  with  Non- 
Provided  schools  on  account  of  their  comparatively  small  accom- 
modation. 


154  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  large  departments  especially  there  is  a  pressing  de- 
mand— beyond  the  ordinary  staffing  scale — for  a  floating 
teacher y  who,  as  the  name  implies,  would  work  in  all  parts 
of  the  school  as  occasion  required,  assisting  those  tem- 
porarily overweighted  with  large  or  otherwise  difficult 
classes,  filling  up  gaps  caused  by  illness,  giving  special 
attention  to  backward  scholars,  and  generally  rendering 
such  assistance  as  would  enable  the  school  to  move  for- 
ward on  steady  lines  and  preserve  the  even  tenor  of  its 
way. 

In  small  schools,  too,  the  inter- departmental  floating 
teacher  may  be  most  useful.  Let  us  take  the  case  of  two 
departments  (boys'  and.  girls'),  each  having  four  class- 
rooms, and  each  with  an  approximate  accommodation  of 
150.  In  cases  of  this  kind  it  is  usual  to  limit  the  assistant 
staff  to  three  teachers,  and  thus  the  head  teachers  are 
tied  to  a  class.  In  order  to  give  him  and  her  some  relief 
from  this  otherwise  permanent  charge,  an  additional  assist- 
ant mistress  is  sometimes  appointed,  who  gives  half  time 
to  each  department,  and  thus  the  head  teachers  are  set 
free  for  two  and  a  half  days  a  week  to  give  attention  to 
supervision  and  other  matters  incidental  to  their  office. 
Of  course  the  same  principle  could  be  applied  to  any  two 
or  three  departments  according  to  circumstances. 

Similarly,  at  the  commencement  of  the  educational  year, 
when  the  senior  departments  are,  as  a  rule,  quite  full,  and 
the  infants'  is  at  its  lowest  numerical  strength,  one  or  two 
teachers  from  the  latter  can  sometimes  be  spared  for 
a  few  weeks  to  work  in  the  senior  departments,  rendering 
help  to  the  ordinary  class  teachers  there,  on  the  Batavia 
system.  This  is  generally  only  practicable  in  large  schools, 
but  it  may  sometimes  be  done  in  comparatively  small  ones. 
The  plan  is  doubly  efficacious.  It  renders  efficient  aid  to 
the  senior  schools,  widens  the  experience  of  the  teacher, 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  155 

gives  her  power  in  self -adjustment  to  another  environment, 
and  probably  adds  to  her  skill  in  teaching.  It  certainly 
leads,  too,  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  needs  of  each 
division  of  a  school,  and  helps  to  put  inter- departmental 
relations  on  a  sound  footing. 

The  temporary  changes  indicated  here  need  not  have 
such  definite  limitations.  It  would  often,  for  example, 
serve  a  useful  purpose  if  a  girls'  mistress  were  placed  in 
occasional  charge  of  a  class  in  an  infants'  department  and 
vice  versa. 

Staff  Difficulties  in  Schools  of  Old  Type. — School 
buildings  of  the  old  type,  often  with  a  room  eighteen  feet 
wide  and  any  length,  or  with  one  room  in  the  form  of  a 
hall  without  even  the  suspicion  of  a  class-room,  present 
grave  difficulties  to  the  teaching  staff.  Though  some  of 
these  buildings  are  still  in  existence  and  in  use,  most  of  them 
have  undergone  structural  changes  that  render  the  work 
of  education  both  easier  and  more  efficient.  In  the  absence 
of  structural  alterations,  or  where  such  alterations  have 
not,  owing  to  the  original  character  of  the  building,  been 
completely  effective,  devices  for  the  isolation  of  the  classes 
have  been  adopted,  these  sometimes  assuming  the  form  of 
curtains,  dwarf  portable  partitions,  roller  shutters,  or  col- 
lapsible screens  extending  from  floor  to  ceiling  and  making 
a  complete  separation.  By  these  means,  and  by  a  careful 
distribution  of  quiet  and  noisy  lessons  among  the  various 
classes,  strains  have  been  lessened  and  activities  economised. 

The  evils  attendant  on  these  antiquated  premises,  even 
if  to  some  extent  remodelled,  have  been  somewhat 
accentuated  by  the  general  employment  of  uncertificated 
teachers,  who,  through  the  comparatively  small  number 
of  children  they  were  officially  regarded  as  competent  to 
teach,  have  necessarily  increased  the  number  of  contending 


156  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

voices  in  a  school.  Many  of  these  teachers,  however,  pos- 
sess excellent  powers  of  discipline  and  sound  instructive 
ability  ;  but  when  a  certain  number  of  children,  represent- 
ing two  or  more  classes,  must  occupy  one  room,  even  if 
comparatively  effective  screens  are  used,  it  is,  of  course, 
preferable  to  have  two  teachers  talking  at  the  same  time 
rather  than  three  or  four.  On  this  ground  only,  apart 
from  other  potent  considerations,  it  is  desirable  to  have 
certificated  teachers  employed. 

And  in  connection  with  this  matter  it  is  as  well  to  say 
that  teachers  generally  talk  far  too  much.  There  is  such 
a  thing — and  if  applied  to  the  teacher's  office  more  often 
the  better  would  be  the  educative  effect — as  masterly 
inactivity  or  scientific  idling.  Loud  or  continuous  talking 
is  no  evidence  of  sound  work ;  it  rather  points  in  the  con- 
trary direction.  Receptiveness  in  a  child  is  excellent  in 
its  way,  but  all  that  is  poured  into  him  is  useless,  unless 
it  enters  into  the  texture  of  his  life,  and  is  thus  ex- 
pressed by  his  own  effort.  The  teacher,  therefore,  should 
talk  less  and  the  scholars  work  more,  relying  on  their  own 
grit.  Comparative  quietude  might  then  reign  in  the 
class-room,  and  a  golden  harvest  be  gathered  in.  Every 
achievement  of  the  pupil  established  by  independent 
attacking  power  means  an  advance  in  personal  force, 
which  time,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  cannot  im- 
pair or  destroy. 

In  these  cases,  therefore,  as  in  all  others,  every  en- 
couragement should  be  given  to  private  effort.  Silent 
lessons  will  then  prevail.  The  teacher  will  find  all  his 
or  her  time  fully  occupied  in  helpful  direction,  super- 
vision, and  seeking  the  word  that  exalts  or  restrains. 

Two  other  points  arise  in  connection  with  old  type 
buildings,  whose  accommodation  is  usually  small  compared 
with  modern  school  structures,  viz.  the  general  need  for 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  157 

grouping  two  or  more  grades  of  scholars  together  to  form 
a  class,  and  the  method  to  be  adopted  by  the  head 
teacher,  if  directly  responsible  for  a  class,  in  the  super- 
vision of  the  other  classes  of  the  school.  The  former  is 
discussed  in  another  chapter  in  connection  with  the  one- 
teacher  school,  and  the  other  is  also  dealt  with  elsewhere. 

Special  Classes. — There  is  a  tendency,  stronger  in  the 
past  perhaps  than  at  present,  to  estimate  the  worth  of  a 
school  by  the  number  and  character  of  its  scholarship 
successes ;  and  through  this  tendency  an  unfortunate  prac- 
tice has  been  fostered  and  extended.  Pupils  of  apparent 
promise,  within  certain  age  limits,  are  sifted  out  from  the 
various  classes  in  a  school  and  converted  into  a  section 
working  on  special  lines,  with  the  view  of  securing  the 
exhibitions  or  scholarships  available  in  the  area.  This  is 
the  substitution  of  an  immediate  end  for  the  remoter  one 
of  sound  harmonious  training,  which  every  good  school 
should  have  constantly  in  view  for  each  of  its  pupils. 

To  divert  the  prescribed  course  of  training  into  the  nar- 
rower channels  that  lead  to  success  in  mere  examinations 
of  this  kind,  the  shallows  and  depths  of  which  are  well 
known  to  the  teachers  concerned,  is  a  reprehensible  practice, 
a  breach  of  a  national,  local,  and  parental  trust,  and  a  sub- 
version of  the  principles  that  inspired  those  who  gave  the 
opportunities  for  a  higher  education  on  a  scholarship  basis. 

The  ultimate  effect  of  such  classes  is  not  infrequently 
disastrous  to  individuals.  The  forced  pace — to  say  nothing 
of  the  shallow  work — is  calculated  to  disturb  the  natural 
order  of  development,  and  often  to  give  to  the  less  able 
pupil,  who  cannot  fully  profit  by  them,  the  opportunities 
primarily  intended  for  others.  Every  weakling  that  crosses 
the  scholarship  bar  is  in  a  false  position,  and  his  last  state 
as  a  scholar  is  likely  to  be  the  worse  for  this  transition. 


158  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Problems  and  Experiments. — That  school  only  is 
really  alive  that  sees  and  appreciates  the  many  problems 
that  are  incidental  to  its  existence.  The  approximate  solu- 
tion of  one  problem  paves  the  way  for  the  solution  of 
another,  and  brings  an  added  light  into  the  class-room. 
Without  the  energising  influence  of  the  desire  for  continual 
discovery,  a  school  cannot  be  strong.  To  influence  child- 
hood rightly,  the  spirit  of  it  must  be  present.  Nearly 
every  pupil — certainly  every  boy — is  a  born  adventurer. 
Let  him  therefore,  within  limits,  indulge  in  his  natural 
bent,  and  discover  things  for  himself.  Indeed,  the  atmo- 
sphere of  the  school  should  be  alive  with  this  sentiment  or 
this  attitude  of  mind.  If  it  is  there,  it  will  be  felt;  if 
not  there,  it  will  be  missed. 

To  move  constantly  in  grooves  wrought  by  the  energy 
and  wisdom  of  past  generations  is  good  up  to  a  point; 
but  there  is  a  limit  to  these  acceptances,  around  which 
only  the  twilight  plays.  The  mind  of  the  unbiassed  critic 
must  be  brought  to  bear  upon  every  phase  of  school  work, 
if  the  machinery  of  organisation  is  to  move  with  ease  and 
be  fully  adapted  to  what  the  school  is  designed  to  accom- 
plish. 

An  intelligent  appreciation  of  one's  bearings  is,  of 
course,  needful  in  these  matters ;  but  no  dread  of  failure, 
or  of  official  censure,  when  conviction  points  the  way, 
should  deter  the  teacher  from  entering  on  a  reasonable 
experimental  course,  whether  it  concerns  organisation 
directly  or  indirectly.  It  is  better  to  have  experimented 
and  failed  than  not  to  have  tried  at  all.  The  know- 
ledge that  springs  from  a  qualified  success,  or  even  from 
failure,  may  be  a  beacon  light  to  show  the  way  to  higher 
things. 

To  understand  each  scholar  is  an  essential  part  of  the 
teacher's  business — to  know  strong  points  as  well  as  weak 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  159 

ones.  For  this  purpose  mere  casual  observation  and 
mental  note-taking  are  hardly  sufficient.  The  research 
should  move  on  scientific  lines.  Medical  inspection  will 
render  material  aid  in  this  direction ;  but  it  should  on  no 
account  be  allowed  to  diminish  the  responsibility  of  the 
teacher  on  the  intellectual  and  moral  side.  Indeed,  the 
teacher's  work  in  this  respect  should  show  its  paper 
records,  at  least  for  each  abnormal  pupil,  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  doctor  records  his  investigations.  On 
the  basis  of  these  records,  experiments  in  classification 
and  method  might  sometimes  be  tried. 

Some   Merits  and  Defects  of   the    Class    System. 

— The  class  system,  which  prevails  in  all  schools,  was 
originally  the  outcome  of  economical  rather  than  of  edu- 
cational considerations  :  it  made  education  possible  to  the 
masses.  Private  tuition  has  much  to  commend  it ;  for 
the  instructor  has  only  to  adjust  his  method  and  energies 
to  the  needs  of  one  pupil,  of  whom  he  should  have  an 
intimate  knowledge,  considering  the  comparatively  small 
field  of  his  work.  Private  tuition,  however,  has  some 
serious  defects,  and  is  not  without  its  dangers.  It  only 
represents  one  relation,  viz.  that  between  the  instructor 
and  the  pupil,  with  the  rights  and  obligations  attaching 
to  each.  There  are  necessarilv  absent  that  stimulus  which 
springs  from  emulation,  and  that  broad  corporate  spirit 
which  animates  equals  striving  for  a  common  end.  There 
is  also  an  absence  of  that  formative  influence  which  comes 
from  continual  individual  and  group  contact  with  com- 
peers ;  and  there  is  the  further  defect  that  the  conditions 
that  underlie  private  tuition  bear  no  real  resemblance  to 
those  that  must  govern  the  life  of  the  adult.  The  assist- 
ance that  is  practically  always  at  hand  to  surmount  diffi- 
culties encountered  by  the  pupil  is  the  chief  danger  of  the 


160  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

purely  individual  system  of  instruction ;  for  without  con- 
flict with  obstacles,  or  difficulties,  self- surmounted  or  self- 
mastered,  there  can  be  little  intellectual  or  moral  develop- 
ment. It  may  be  said  that  private  tuition,  wisely  applied, 
is  excellent  from  a  purely  subjective  standpoint ;  but  edu- 
cation must  bring  into  prominence  the  objective  side  also, 
and  in  this  respect  private  tuition  is  weak. 

Class  instruction,  if  the  number  of  scholars  does  not 
pass  beyond  reasonable  limits,  has  many  advantages.  The 
child  has  to  be  prepared  for  life  in  all  its  phases — as  a 
social  being,  as  a  citizen,  as  a  thinker  and  worker  who 
should  contribute  something  to  the  common  welfare.  It 
is  desirable  therefore  that  his  training  should  be  effected 
in  surroundings  and  under  conditions  that  have  some 
similitude  to  those  under  which  he  must  live  in  the 
future. 

The  school  touches  the  community  of  men  and  women ; 
it  is  part  of  the  state  organisation ;  it  is  in  contact  with 
national  life.  The  child's  responsibilities  therefore  in 
relation  to  others  can  be  realised  to  some  extent  from 
training  experience  :  they  cannot  be  realised  through  mere 
abstractions.  And  these  responsibilities  are  a  factor  in 
the  class  system,  which  has  its  definite  interests  and 
activities,  to  which  the  individual  contributes  and  to 
which,  in  some  degree,  he  subordinates  his  personal 
claims  if  not  conducive  to  the  common  end.  Group 
interests  and  activities  give  the  scholar  a  broader  view 
of  the  obligations  of  life  than  the  system  of  private 
tuition — for  the  concept  involving  them  is  wider  and 
stronger  in  appeal.  A  healthy  competitive  element  is, 
too,  usually  present,  and  this  is  a  stimulating  force  of 
great  value. 

While  private  tuition  represents  only  one  relation,  the 
class  system  represents  at  least  three,  viz.   (1)   the  relation 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  161 

between  the  pupil  and  the  teacher,  (2)  the  relation  between 
the  pupil  and  the  group  or  class,  and  also  with  each 
member  of  it,  and  (3)  the  relation  between  the  pupil  and 
the  school  as  a  whole,  i.e.  the  school  community,  including 
staff,  scholars,  and  everything  that  the  name  of  the  school 
connotes.  These  broader  relationships  in  action,  and  the 
ideals  associated  with  them,  lead  to  the  expansion  of  life. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  some  of  the  other  merits  of  class 
instruction  have  been  negatively  expressed  in  connection 
with  private  tuition.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state  them  in 
positive  form. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  class  system  leaves  much  to  be 
desired.  When  the  old  Jewish  ideal  of  the  size  of  a  class1 
is  realised,  which  is  the  one  now  considered  most  suitable 
for  secondary  schools,  possibly  everyone  will  be  satisfied. 
Except  under  careful  and  discriminating  management, 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  the  individual  to  become 
submerged  in  the  mass,  and  hence  a  danger  of  the  in- 
struction being  reduced  to  the  level  of  machine  work. 
Those  probably  who  lose  most  under  the  existing  practice 
are  the  clever  children  and  the  dull  ones.  There  is  neces- 
sarily a  certain  amount  of  waste  effort  which  no  foresight 
or  device  can  entirely  eliminate;  it  is  incidental  to  the 
mechanism  of  class  routine,  and  to  a  smaller  extent  to 
class  instruction :  the  larger  the  class  the  greater  must 
be  the  waste.  Instruction  must  be  generalised.  It  cannot 
thus  wholly  fit  in  with  each  child's  requirements.  No  two 
children  observe,  think,  and  act  alike,  or  have  exactly  the 
same  kind  or  degree  of  receptive  power.  The  differences 
are  probably  slight  in  most  cases,  but  their  presence  is 
sufficient  to  lead  to  inequalities  in  development  and  attain- 
ments. What  is  clearly  wanted  is  a  compromise  between 
class  and  individual  instruction. 

1  Twenty.. 
s.o.  13 


162  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  Batavia  System. — It  is  realised  that  the  class 
system  is  by  no  means  perfect.  The  individual  needs  much 
more  attention  than  the  system,  under  existing  official 
conditions,  is  warranted  to  give.  Some  readjustment 
seems  therefore  desirable  between  the  claims  of  class  and 
individual  instruction.  This  is  to  be  found  in  the 
"  Batavia  system,"  largely  employed  in  American  schools, 
which,  without  sacrificing  the  best  features  of  the  class 
method,  eliminates  its  most  serious  defects  and  recognises 
the  necessity  for  systematic  attention  to  the  individual. 

It  consists,  in  its  highest  expression,  in  making  one  teacher 
responsible  for  a  class  regarded  as  a  whole,  and  another 
fully  qualified  teacher  chiefly  responsible  for  individual 
attention  to  the  members  of  that  class.  It  is  not,  however, 
essential  to  have  tvjo  teachers  where  one  now  suffices,  if  the 
spirit  of  the  system  is  preserved  and  definite  provision 
made  for  training  on  the  individual  basis.  This  individual 
basis  occupies  a  prescribed  and  definite  position  in  school 
work,  and  is  moreover  governed  by  the  following  wise 
restrictions  and  limitations  : — No  pupil  is  allowed  to  show 
any  conscious  indications  that  he  is  in  need  of  assistance  in 
his  studies.  The  teacher,  in  the  course  of  his  investigating 
survey,  must  discover  this  need  and  render  such  help  to  the 
pupil  as  will  enable  him  to  master  difficulties  for  himself. 
There  must,  in  other  words,  be  no  direct  help.  The  real 
power  to  surmount  obstacles  must  come  from  the  pupil. 
The  teacher  might,  for  example,  call  attention  to  a  principle 
and  leave  the  scholar  to  apply  it.  The  broad  basis  of  the 
self-development  method  must  always  be  recognised. 

This  system  must,  of  necessity,  if  carried  out  scrupu- 
lously, cultivate  individual  resource  and  self-reliance. 

But  how  is  the  Batavia  method  to  be  applied  to  a  one- 
teacher  class  ?  In  the  American  schools,  where  the  study 
and   recitation  lessons   prevail,  the  application  is  not  a 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  163 

difficult  one ;  for  the  two  types  of  lessons  are  connected  on 
a  subject  basis — the  recitation  lesson  being  largely,  if 
not  wholly,  a  test  of  the  efficacy  of  the  study  lesson.  In 
English  schools  the  practice  is  by  no  means  the  same ;  but 
in  any  case  the  one-teacher  class  must  be  divided  perhaps 
quite  arbitrarily,  except  in  some  cases,  into  two  approxi- 
mately equal  sections  ;  and  one  of  these  groups  or  sections 
must  take  private  study,  whilst  the  other  group  claims  for 
oral  work  most  of  the  attention  of  the  teacher,  and  vice 
versa. 

In  some  subjects — writing,  drawing,  singing,  physical 
exercises,  Scripture — the  two  groups  could,  as  a  rule, 
combine ;  but  in  others,  like  arithmetic,  reading,  geography, 
history,  etc.,  the  lessons  should,  as  far  as  possible,  alter- 
nate between  private  study  and  oral  lessons,  the  latter 
being  partially  used  as  a  test  of  the  efficacy  of  the  private 
endeavour  in  these  subjects. 

It  is,  however,  extremely  important  that  the  private 
study  period,  which  has  both  a  strongly  positive  and  nega- 
tive aspect — positively  for  good  and  negatively  for  evil — 
should  be  individually  effective.  Waste,  in  the  form  of 
idleness,  dilatoriness,  and  misdirected  energy,  will  be  sure 
to  creep  in  unless  the  assignment  of  work  has  been  judi- 
ciously made  and  each  scholar  is  conscious  beforehand  that 
his  application  will  be  inevitably  tested  to  discover  any 
weakness  in  his  work  or  any  attempt  to  shirk  his  personal 
responsibilities. 

Most  English  text-books,  unlike  the  American,  have  not 
been  designed  to  meet  private  study  exigencies.  The  able 
teacher,  however,  will  find  means  of  meeting  these  defi- 
ciencies by  carefully  prepared  questions,  either  written  on 
the  blackboard  or  on  separate  sheets  of  paper  supplied  to 
each  pupil. 

A  further  consideration  has  weight  in  this  connection. 


164  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Lessons  in  schools,  elementary  and  secondary,  are  gene- 
rally too  prolonged  for  intense  work.  Shorter  periods, 
with  a  greater  demand  on  the  energies — even  if  brief 
intervals  for  rest  intervened — would  prove  far  more  effec- 
tive. If  the  period  devoted  to  private  effort  is  long — passes 
the  point  where  interest  flags  and  the  will-power  weakens 
or  fails,  or  where  monotony  and  tedium  set  in — the  temp- 
tation is  especially  great  for  the  ordinary  scholar  to  lapse 
into  idleness  and  possibly  mischief.  The  set-back  in  cases 
like  these  will  demand  much  strenuousness  on  the  teacher's 
part  to  recover  the  lost  ground — lost  not  so  much  in  time 
as  in  the  incipient  process  of  the  formation  of  undesirable 
habits.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  side  of 
school  work  more  likely  to  be  productive  of  evil  than  the 
private  study  lesson  that  has  not  been  wisely  organised, 
carefully  supervised,  and  thoroughly  checked.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  reason  for  using  it  sparingly.  It  is  the  most 
effective  educative  weapon  that  can  be  employed ;  but  like 
all  weapons  its  utility  depends  on  the  skill  with  which  it  is 
put  into  operation. 

It  is  claimed  for  this  system  of  "class-individual" 
instruction  that  it  is  a  uniform  and  unqualified  success 
when  carried  out  in  the  right  spirit  by  an  efficient  teacher ; 
that  it  eliminates  the  backward  scholar — for  immediately 
retardation  appears  special  attention  is  given  to  him,  and 
he  soon  rises  to  the  level  of  the  other  members  of  the 
class ;  that  regular  promotions  can  be  safely  carried  out ; 
and  that  many  pupils  are  able  to  master  a  two-years'  course 
iii  one  year. 

It  need  scarcely  be  observed  that  the  Batavia  method  is 
based  on  sound  principles.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the 
great  value  of  its  application  on  a  large  scale,  provided  it 
is  safeguarded  by  the  precautions  and  limitations  already 
mentioned. 


THE    SCHOOL    AND    ITS    DIVISIONS.  165 

It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  the  Batavia 
method  is  a  modern  discovery.  It  is  really  an  old  prin- 
ciple with  a  new  name  that  has  been  applied  in  varying 
degrees  since  the  class  system  became  a  necessity.  A 
reference  to  the  general  principles  that  must  operate  in  a 
one-teacher  school1  will  show,  in  conjunction  with  the 
school's  time-table,  how  "  class-individual  "  instruction  can 
be  applied ;  but  in  this  instance  the  method  is  at  work 
under  most  unfavourable  conditions.  With  one  class  of 
scholars  of  approximately  equal  attainments,2  the  teacher 
should  experience  no  real  difficulties  if  he  distributes  his 
time  over  the  two  sections  of  his  class,  much  in  the  same 
way  as  the  sole  teacher  must  do  over  the  two  divisions  of 
the  one-class  school. 

1  See  pp.  74-82. 

2  It  will  be  found  in  practice  that  nearly  every  class  could  be 
divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  division.  Some  might  prefer  the 
arbitrary  line  of  separation  for  this  purpose,  while  others  regard 
attainments  and  natural  ability  as  the  fitting  criteria  for  a  division. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


"Acquirement  of  every  kind  lias  two  values — value  as  knowledge 
and  value  as  discipline.'' — H.  Spencer's  Education. 

"It  is  a  law  of  human  nature  that  those  who  are  debarred  the 
higher  gratifications  fall  back  upon  the  lower." — Ibid. 


ORGANISATION  IN  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF 
SCHOOLS.  THE  WORK  OF  THE  STAFF. 
SOME    TIME-TABLES. 

The  Ordinary  Graded  School. — The  constitution  of 
the  various  ordinary  Elementary  Schools  has  been  indi- 
cated in  Chapter  III.  On  a  functional  basis  they  may  be 
classified  into  (1)  Ordinary  Graded  Schools,  (2)  Special 
Schools,  and  (3)  Higher  Grade  or  Higher  Elementary 
Schools. 

Schools  for  higher  education  may  be  divided,  into 
(1)  Secondary  Schools,  (2)  Day  Trade  Schools,  (3)  Day 
Technical  Schools,  (4)  Evening  Schools. 

It  is  not  possible  to  consider  here  every  type  of  school 
from  the  point  of  view  of  organisation.  It  is,  however, 
desirable  to  deal  somewhat  fully  with  a  small  elementary 
school  that  is  about  one  remove  above  the  one-class  or  one- 
teacher  school.  This  consists  of  a  combined  mixed  and 
infants'  department  in  which  the  head  teacher  is  aided  by 
one  assistant  mistress  or  by  a  student  teacher.  The  prin- 
ciples that  must  determine  the  organisation  of  a  school  of 
this  type  will  be  found  applicable  to  the  majority  of  rural 

166 


STAFFING.  167 

institutions  similar  in  character  but  perhaps  a  little  larger 
in  accommodation.  They  should  also  apply,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  to  all  grouped  classes. 

It  is  clear  that  organisation  and  distribution  of  the  staff 
must  chiefly  depend  on  the  number  of  teachers  as  well  as 
on  the  number  of  scholars  and  their  attainments.  It  will 
be  preferable  to  take  four  fairly  definite  cases  of  senior 
departments  by  way  of  illustration,  stating  for  each  the 
approximate  number  of  scholars  and  the  quantity  of  the 
staff,  assuming  also  that  the  following  conditions  or  prin- 
ciples are  operative:  (1)  That  there  is  a  fairly  equal 
distribution  of  pupils  over  the  grades  or  standards  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  school.  As  a  rule  the  numbers  in  the 
grades  diminish,  sometimes  considerably,  above  Standard 
IV.,  and  Standards  I.  and  II.  are  usually  the  largest. 
(2)  That  the  ordinary  class  system  is  adopted.  This  will 
permit  of  a  limited  specialisation  if  desirable.  (3)  That 
no  class  must  have  more  than  60  pupils,  and  that  a  com- 
bined class,  as  a  rule,  should  not  exceed  40  on  the  roll. 
(4)  That  the  class-rooms  will  admit  of  the  organisation 
without  overcrowding  ;  and  (5)  that  each  teacher  is  placed 
in  charge  of  that  class  in  which  he  can  render  the  most 
effective  service. 

Case  I.  100  to  120  Scholars.     Staff1— H.T.  +  2 A. 

Organisation: — Sts.  I.  and  II.,   Sts.  III.  and  IV.,  Sts. 

V.  to  VII.,  the  H.T.  being  in  charge 
of  the  first  class. 

Case  II.  150  Scholars.     Staff— H.T.  +  3A. 

Organisation: — Sts.    I.    and  II. b2,   Sts.   II. a  and   III., 

Sts.  IV.   and  V.,  Sts.  VI.  and  VII., 
the  H.T.  taking  the  first  class. 

1  H.T.  +  2A  =  Head  Teacher  +  2  Certificated  Assistants. 
3  II.  b  represents  a  section  lower  in  attainments  than  II.  a. 


168  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Case  III.  200  Scholars.     Staff—  H.T.  +  4 A. 

Organisation : — St.  I.,  St.  II.,  Sts.  III.  and  IV.,  Sts.  V.  to 

VII.  Here  the  H.T.  should  not  be  tied 
to  a  class,  but  should  divide  a  large 
part  of  his  time  in  rendering  sub- 
stantial assistance  to  the  teachers  in 
charge  of  the  first  and  second  classes. 

Case  IV.  250  Scholars.     Staff— H.T.  +  5A. 
Organisation  : — St.  I.,  St.  II.,  St.  III. 
/  *  according  to 

\  Sts.  IV.  and  V.,  Sts.  VI.  and  VII..  or  /  numbers  and 
j  St.  IV.,  Sts.  V.  to  VII.  I  other  circuni- 

\  /  stances. 

Here,  as  in  the  previous  case,  the  H.T.  should  give  a 
considerable  amount  of  attention  to  the  first  and  second 
classes  in  the  one  instance,  or  the  first  class  in  the  other. 

It  is  manifest  that  grouped  classes  must  exist,  to  some 
extent,  in  every  instance  where  the  quantity  of  the  staff 
falls  below  the  number  of  grades  in  the  school.  The 
above  staffing  should  be  regarded  as  the  minimum.  When 
possible,  combined  or  grouped  classes  should  be  avoided, 
except  for  certain  subjects  that  lend  themselves  to  this 
arrangement. 

With  regard  to  the  small  combined  mixed  and  infant 
school  already  referred  to,  the  time-tables  for  each  division 
are  given  on  pages  170  and  171,  together  with  a  few  ex- 
planatory critical  notes.  In  mixed  departments  generally, 
complications  arise  on  account  of  needlework  and  of  prac- 
tical instruction  in  domestic  subjects.  The  position  is 
met  by  the  boys'  taking  drawing  and  physical  exercises 
or  organised  games  while  the  girls  are  employed  with  the 
needle.  This  most  often  involves  a  temporary  re-grouping. 
If  the  third  and  fourth  classes  are  mixed,  for  example,  the 


THE    ORDINARY    GRADED    SCHOOL.  169 

girls  in  these  two  classes  would  combine  for  needlework, 
and  the  boys  similarly  for  drawing  or  other  subject  deter- 
mined by  the  time-table.  With  regard  to  domestic  subjects, 
a  well  organised  system  should  provide  for  the  training  of 
the  girls  at  the  centres  at  the  same  time  as  the  boys  are 
engaged  with  their  woodwork.  The  needlework  alone  in 
mixed  departments  makes  it  imperative  to  have  at  least 
half  the  members  of  the  assistant  staff  consisting  of 
women  teachers. 

The  organisation  of  the  one-teacher  school  has  already 
been  considered  in  Chapter  II.  In  larger  departments 
than  those  indicated  above  the  classification  becomes  com- 
paratively easy,  since  grouped  classes  tend  to  vanish  with 
larger  accommodations.  Such  classes,  however,  though  on 
general  grounds  undesirable,  are  not  without  some  ad- 
vantages. They  necessitate  much  repetition  and  over- 
lapping of  work ;  and  if  this  is  skilfully  and  appropriately 
carried  out  by  the  teacher,  nothing  but  good  can  result 
from  it,  assuming  that  there  is  a  rational  system  of  pro- 
motion in  the  school,  and  that  this  is  operative  throughout 
the  year.  The  one  great  fault  that  lies  at  the  root  of 
class  teaching  in  many  large  schools  is  haste — almost  a 
feverish  anxiety  to  cover  the  syllabus  as  rapidly  as  possible 
and  a  consequent  contentment  with  scratching  the  surface 
rather  than  ploughing  deep.  Every  item  of  instruction  is 
worthy  of  a  broad  base  and  a  firm  foundation. 

As  already  advised,  when  the  head  teacher  must  act  as 
a  permanent  class  teacher,  or  when  much  of  his  time 
must  be  devoted  to  teaching,  it  is  eminently  desirable  that 
he  should  devote  most  of  his  energies  to  the  first  class. 
The  scholars  there  stand  most  in  need  of  the  strongest 
personality  available  in  the  school.  In  enables  him,  too, 
when  time  for  supervision  is  practically  nil  or  very  limited, 
to  test  the  worth  of  the  methods  and  the  general  value  of 


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172  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  work  in  the  other  classes,  particularly  those  of  the 
class  immediately  below.  If  the  teaching  and  training  are 
sound,  indifferent,  or  weak  in  the  lower  classes,  the  effects 
will  reveal  themselves  in  accumulated  form  m  the  highest 
class.  This  closer  touch  with  scholars  will  give  the  head 
teacher  surer  information  than  examinations  can  supply. 

The  infant  school,  on  the  whole,  presents  fewer  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  organisation  than  senior  departments. 
It  is  limited  to  three  or  four  grades,  whereas  most  senior 
departments  have  to  cater  for  seven  or  eight.  The  larger 
the  accommodation,  however,  the  fewer  are  the  difficulties  in 
each  case,  provided  there  is  a  suitable  and  adequate  staff. 
In  a  small  infant  school  of  three  grades  with  only  one 
teacher  the  barriers  to  sound  training  seem  almost  insur- 
mountable, for  the  younger  children  are  so  helpless  and 
need  constant  attention.  In  this  instance  there  is  pro- 
bably only  one  course  open,  viz.  to  work  the  school  as  one 
division  for  most  subjects,  and  to  differentiate  Grades 
I.  and  II.  from  Grade  III.  when  reading  and  writing  have 
to  be  taught  to  the  older  scholars.  The  work  in  Grades  I. 
and  II.  as  a  grouped  class  should  be  confined  to  nature 
study,  language,  games,  free-arm  drawing,  and  practical 
instruction  in  the  little  courtesies  of  daily  life. 

Handwork,  in  all  departments,  is  most  suitable  for  the 
afternoon  session. 

General  Plan  of  Procedure  followed  by  the  Head 
Teacher  in  keeping  a  small  Combined  School  going. 
Time-tables  are  given  on  the  two  preceding  pages. — 

Teachers  and  monitors  present  ten  minutes  before  school 
time  to  give  out  books,  pens,  etc.,  and  set  up  sums  and 
drawings  so  that  classes  can  start  work  immediately. 
(The  day's  work  must  be  carefully  planned  beforehand  or 
all  the  lessons  cannot  be  fitted  in.) 


THE    SMALL    SCHOOL.  173 

While  teacher  gives  oral  lesson  to  one  class  the  other 
has  written  work,  study  or  silent  reading. 

Interest  is  maintained  by  varying  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing, by  games,  competitions,  etc. 

Correction  of  exercise  books  is  done  after  school,  but  the 
teacher  goes  through  them  with  the  class  each  morning. 

Practical  work  insisted  on — the  children  to  be  always 
doing  something. 

Special  attention  paid  to  enunciation.  Slovenly  speaking 
not  permitted.  Children  taught  to  express  themselves  well 
by  means  of  oral  composition  (in  the  lower  standards), 
answering  at  length  (in  the  upper),  questioning  each  other, 
story-telling,  etc. 

Discipline  not  too  rigid :  children  encouraged  to  speak 
and  act  naturally.  Kept  happy  and  busy.  Always  some- 
thing in  hand  for  odd  minutes.  Corporal  punishment 
seldom  needed. 

5  marks  given  each  Session : — Punctuality,  1 ;  Attention, 
1  ;  Conduct,  2  ;  Industry,  1  ;  i.e.  100  per  week. 

A  list  of  marks  earned  by  each  scholar  is  put  up  in 
school  every  week,  and  prizes  awarded  once  a  year  to  the 
Senior  Scholars,  but  more  frequently  to  the  Juniors. 

Sts.  II. -VII.  (taught  by  mistress)  are  grouped  for  sing- 
ing and  physical  exercises. 

Sts.  IV. -VII.  grouped  for  all  subjects  except  reading  and 
arithmetic.     Sts.  II.  and  III.  grouped  for  oral  work. 

The  Infants  and  St.  I.  are  taught  by  a  student  teacher 
in  class-room. 

A  weekly  record  is  kept  of  work  done.  An  examina- 
tion is  held  at  the  end  of  each  term,  and  the  children  are 
not  usually  promoted  oftener  than  once  a  year. 

The  Younger  Infants. — The  classification  in  infant 
schools  was  considered  in  a  previous  chapter.     There  is, 


174  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

however,  one  phase  of  the  work  which  merits  special  atten- 
tion here :  viz.  that  which  concerns  children  under  the  age  of 
five  years.  The  Eeport  of  the  Consultative  Committee x  on 
this  question  deserves  notice,  especially  as  it  has  a  definite 
bearing  on  organisation.  Some  of  the  views  and  recom- 
mendations of  the  Committee  run  substantially  on  the 
following  lines : — 

1.  The  best  place  for  all  children  under  five  years  of  age 
is  a  good  home.  Such  a  home,  of  course,  presupposes  an 
intelligent  and  devoted  mother,  able  and  willing  to  care 
for  and  to  train  her  children  in  a  proper  manner.  This 
natural  relationship  between  mother  and  child,  when  the 
former  recognises  her  responsibilities,  is  one  the  effective- 
ness of  which  no  school  can  supply,  and  whose  power  no 
State  policy  should  attempt  to  impair.  Under  existing 
economic  conditions,  however,  the  homes  and  surroundings 
of  many  children  are  not  satisfactory,  and  this  is  especially 
so  in  slum  districts.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  chil- 
dren from  such  homes  should  be  able  to  go  to  places 
especially  intended  for  their  training,  and  no  obstacles 
should  be  raised  to  their  admission  by  the  Local  Education 
Authority. 

The  Committee  also  consider  that  the  best  places 
for  this  purpose  are  nursery  schools  attached  to  public 
elementary  schools.  Private  institutions  are  also  desirable 
when  they  form  a  link  in  the  educational  system,  especially 
in  those  areas  where  it  might  be  unreasonable  to  compel 
the  Local  Educational  Authority  to  provide  nursery  schools. 
Such  private  institutions,  however,  should  be  subject  to 
public  inspection,  and  have  the  same  educational  basis  as 
the  nursery  schools,  and  should  be  conveniently  near  public 
elementary  schools,  with  which  they  could  work  in  harmony, 
so  that  the  transition  from  them  to  the  public  elementary 
1  1908 — issued  by  the  Board  of  Education. 


NURSERY    SCHOOLS.  175 

school  should  be  made  as  easy  as  possible.  These  private 
institutions,  if  conducted  with  the  consent  and  approval  of 
the  Local  Educational  Authority,  should  be  assisted  by 
public  grants. 

"  Nursery  schools "  include  (a)  public  elementary 
schools  which  contain  properly  organised  classes  for 
younger  infants  (babies'  classes  and  rooms)  and  where  the 
methods  of  instruction  applied  to  such  infants  are  uni- 
formly carried  out  on  Froebelian  lines,  and  (6)  any  other 
Kindergarten  institutions  that  cater  for  the  training  of 
children  under  five  years  of  age.  Special  stress  is  laid  on 
the  difference  between  the  infants'  school  with  the  modern 
spirit  of  instruction  and  the  infants'  school  that  still 
moves  on  old-fashioned  lines. 

2.  Premises. — With  regard  to  the  nursery  school  it 
is  advisable  to  have  special  building  regulations  for  the 
premises,  as  younger  infants  are  even  more  dependent  upon 
light  and  air  and  sunshine  than  older  children.  Heavy 
desks  and  galleries  should  never  be  used,  but  small  tables 
and  chairs  should  take  their  place,  as  these  can  be  easily 
set  aside  to  make  room  for  games  and  play.  Much  more 
floor  space  should  be  provided  for  younger  infants  than  is 
generally  the  case  at  present  for  older  children.  There 
should  be  easy  exit  direct  into  the  playground  from  all 
rooms  in  the  nursery  school.  The  playground  should  be 
partly  under  cover  so  that  infants  can  spend  as  much  time 
as  possible  therein.  It  is  desirable  that  the  playgrounds, 
too,  should  contain  trees  and  small  plots  for  gardens.  The 
offices  and  washing  arrangements  should  be  as  complete  as 
possible.  Some  simple  means  of  giving  the  children  baths, 
as  is  done  in  the  Ecoles  Maternelles,  and  also  in  many 
elementary  schools  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  are  desir- 
able. 

3.  Curriculum. — This  should  be  so  defined  as  to  give 


176  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  children's  natural  instinct  for  movement  full  con- 
sideration. There  should  be  plenty  of  games  and  free 
play  in  the  open  air  whenever  possible ;  it  is  even  desirable 
that  half  the  school  time  should  be  spent  in  the  open 
air.  There  should  be  no  rigid  time-table,  and  no  lesson 
should  exceed  fifteen  minutes.  Generally,  the  Committee 
would  have  the  curriculum  and  the  methods  almost  exactly 
the  same  as  those  in  the  babies'  section  of  one  of  the 
modern  infants'  schools.  Infants  should  be  allowed  to 
sleep  whenever  they  are  sleepy.  The  nursery  school 
should  be  kept  open  during  the  same  hours  as  the  school 
for  senior  children,  in  order  that  the  older  ones  may  escort 
their  little  brothers  and  sisters  to  and  from  school. 
Generally  speaking,  nothing  should  be  done  in  the  nursery 
school  that  prolongs  complex  operations  of  the  nervous  or 
muscular  systems.  All  formal  lessons  in  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  should  be  rigidly  excluded. 

4.  Apparatus. — This  should  be  much  the  same  as  that 
found  in  good  babies'  rooms  in  modern  schools,  with  the 
addition  of  net-beds  or  other  suitable  and  sanitary  pro- 
vision for  sleeping,  and  also  a  piano. 

5.  Staff. — The  best  person  to  have  the  management  of 
a  nursery  school  is  a  well  educated  teacher  trained  on 
Froebelian  principles  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term. 
She  should,  therefore,  have  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
physical  and  mental  development  of  childhood.  She 
should  have  passed  through  a  course  of  nature  study 
and  have  a  knowledge  of  literature  and  history  from 
which  she  could  select  what  is  appropriate  in  poetry  and 
story. 

She  should  have  knowledge  of  hand-work,  and  have 
had  some  training  in  the  detection  of  physical  and 
mental  fatigue  and  in  the  physical  condition  of  young 
children   in  health    and    disease.     The   number  of   little 


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14 


178  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

children  under  one  teacher  should  never  exceed  thirty. 
Where,  however,  a  Nurse  or  Femme  de  service  is  appointed 
to  assist  the  teacher  with  a  view  to  attending  to  the 
children's  physical  needs,  the  number  of  children  forming 
a  class  might  be  slightly  increased. 

6.  When  there  are  many  imperfect  homes  in  an  area, 
the  majority  of  children  who  will  eventually  attend  the 
elementary  school  should  be  considered  eligible  for  admis- 
sion to  nursery  schools  when  three  years  of  age. 

The  time-table  on  p.  177  is  suitable  for  children  be- 
tween three  and  five  years  old.  It  is  only  intended  as  a 
rough  guide  to  the  class  teacher  and  may  be  varied  from 
day  to  day  according  to  circumstances,  even  according  to 
the  weather.  A  five  minutes'  rest  between  lessons  is  per- 
missible, and  desirable.  The  children  spend  as  much  time 
as  possible  in  the  playground.  The  writing  is  on  free-arm 
lines  (sand,  etc.),  and  the  Scripture  lessons  are  varied  by 
hymns  and  by  memorising  texts.  The  time  from  2.15  to 
3  p.m.  is  devoted  to  at  least  two  lessons,  with  necessary 
intermissions  for  rest.  From  9.55  to  10.30  a.m.  there  are 
again  two  lessons.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  taught 
incidentally  through  games  and  make-believe  devices. 


Elementary  Schools  Serving  a  Special  Purpose. 

Partial  Exemption  Schools  and  Scholars. — Under 
provisions  of  the  Education  Acts  and  the  bye-laws  of 
Local  Education  Authorities,  children  may  obtain  partial 
exemption  from  school  for  purposes  of  employment.  Such 
children  must  attend  school  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  certificate  of  exemption  and  receive  on  each  attendance 
two  hours'  secular  instruction.  To  meet  the  needs  of  these 
children  half -time  schools  were  established  in  some  large 


VARIOUS    TYPES    UJb1    SCHOOLS.  179 

centres  of  industry.  As  far  as  practicable,  one  set  of 
scholars  attend  in  the  morning  and  another  in  the  after- 
noon. When  partial  exemption  scholars  attend  an  ordinary 
full-time  school,  separate  registers  must  be  kept  for 
them.  The  term  "  partial  exemption  scholar "  means  a 
scholar  certified  by  the  Local  Authority  to  be  employed  in 
conformity  with  the  bye-laws,  "  or,  if  not  subject  to  the 
bye-laws,  in  conformity  with  the  Elementary  Education 
Act,  1876,  or  any  other  Act  regulating  the  education  of 
children  employed  in  labour,  and  in  either  case  he  must  be 
recognised  by  the  Board  as  a  partial  exemption  scholar."1 

The  partial  exemption  scholar  must  be  over  eleven  years 
of  age  and  be  "  beneficially  and  necessarily  "  employed. 

In  half-time  schools  each  afternoon's  work  must  neces- 
sarily be  a  duplication  of  the  work  of  the  morning. 

Industrial  Schools. — These  institutions  have  become 
a  necessary  part  of  the  educational  system.  They  were 
established  to  meet  the  special  needs  of  children  charged 
before  a  magistrate  either  under  (1)  the  Industrial  Schools 
Act  of  1866,  or  (2)  the  Elementary  Education  Act  of 
1876.  The  former  Act  has  now  been  repealed  and  the 
latter  partially  so  by  the  Children  Act,  1908,  which  now 
operates  on  all  matters  of  this  nature.  This  Act  recognises 
three  classes  of  Industrial  Schools  : — 

(1)  Ordinary  industrial  schools  where  children  are  lodged, 
clothed,  fed,  and  taught;  (2)  day  industrial  schools,  for 
children  trained  on  industrial  lines,  who  receive  one  or 
more  meals  a  day  ;  (3)  special  industrial  schools  for 
children  suffering  from  some  mental  or  physical  defect. 

1  Art.  43  (c),  Code  1910,  and  Sched.  IV.  24-26.  In  the  Report  of 
the  Inter-Departmental  Committee  on  Half-Time  Employment  there 
is  this  recommendation — "  that  all  partial  exemption  be  abolished 
from  a  date  not  earlier  than  January  1st,  1911." 


180  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

These  schools  must  be  certified  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
and.  inspected  annually  by  an  inspector  appointed  by  him. 

Children  found  begging,  or  with  "  no  visible  means  of  sub- 
sistence," or  associated  with  "unfit"  parents  or  guardians, 
or  charged  with  some  punishable  offence,  or  disobeying 
attendance  orders  made  under  the  Education  Act,  1876, 
may  be  committed  by  a  magistrate  to  one  of  these  schools 
for  a  definite  period.  Generally  speaking,  the  provisions  in 
the  Act  concerning  industrial  schools  are  also  applicable  to 
reformatory  schools.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  local  educa- 
tional authority  to  provide  for  the  reception  and  main- 
tenance in  industrial  or  reformatory  schools  of  any  child 
resident  in  its  district  who  is  ordeied  to  be  sent  to  such 
schools. 

Most  of  these  institutions  are  residential.  They  are 
really  half-time  schools  so  far  as  the  regular  elementary 
school  curriculum  is  concerned,  the  other  five  half-days 
being  devoted  to  manual  training  in  wood  and  metal  work, 
tailoring,  bootmaking,  gardening,  farming,  and  other  kin- 
dred employments  of  a  practical  nature. 

Institutions  of  a  like  character  are  in  existence  in  the 
United  States  and  most  European  countries.  They  are 
called  Parental  Schools  in  America. 

Vacation  Schools1  are  of  comparatively  recent  growth. 
Private  enterprise,  supported  by  official  sanctions,  called 
them  into  existence  and  assisted  in  their  development. 
Under  the  Education  (Administrative  Provisions)  Act, 
1907  (S.  13),  the  local  education  authority  is  now 
empowered  to  provide  for  elementary  school  children 
"  vacation  schools,  vacation  classes,  play-centres  or  other 
means  of  recreation  during  their  holidays,  or  at  such  other 
times  as  the  local  education  authority  may  prescribe,  in 

1  See  Report  of  the  Education  Commission  of  Chicago,  1900. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    SCHOOLS.  181 

the  school  house  or  some  other  suitable  place  in  the 
vicinity." 

Accordingly  many  school  buildings  and  playgrounds, 
under,  of  course,  proper  guidance  and  supervision,  become 
a  busy  hive  during  the  long  summer  holiday.  Manual 
training  and  nature  study  are  the  subjects  mostly  taken 
by  the  boys.  The  girls,  too,  take  up  the  latter  subject 
together  with  the  domestic  arts  and  other  manual  exercises, 
while  the  infants  are  happily  employed  with  kindergarten 
games. 

These  employments  are  supplemented  by  occasional 
excursions  into  the  country.  As  far  as  possible,  the  work 
is  carried  on  in  the  playground  or  other  open  air  places. 
In  many  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States  the 
demand  for  admission  to  these  schools  is  so  great  that  it 
cannot  adequately  be  met  by  private  enterprise.  In  New 
York  vacation  schools  have  been  adopted  as  part  of  the 
school  system.  "Holiday  courses,"  consisting  mostly  of 
organised  games,  are  also  carried  out  in  Berlin.1 

"Special  Schools."2 — For  purposes  of  these  schools 
defective  children  are  classified  into 

(1)  Mentally  defective. 

(2)  Physically  defective.     These  again  are  sub- divided 
according  as  they  are 

(a)  Physically  defective   other   than    blind  and 

deaf. 

(b)  Blind. 

(c)  Deaf. 

1  See  Report  of  Mr.  Gr.  Andrew  to  the  Scotch  Education  Depart- 
ment, 1904. 

2  "Special  Schools"  =  schools  for  the  blind,  deaf,  defective  or 
epileptic  children,  for  which  the  Board  of  Education  have  a  special 
Code. 


182  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  deal  with  (1)  and  (2  a)  first. 
The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  determine  the 
minimum  conditions  concerning  the  school  premises,  terms 
of  admission,  and  general  treatment  of  these  children.  No 
child  is  admitted  under  the  age  of  seven  or  retained  after 
reaching  the  age  of  sixteen,  except  in  the  case  of  physically 
defective  children,  who  may  be  admitted  when  five  years 
old. 

Most  of  the  children  of  this  type  find  their  way  into 
these  special  departments  through  the  agency  of  the  head 
teachers  of  the  ordinary  schools,  whose  duty  it  is  to  present 
defective  children  to  the  medical  officer  for  examination 
on  the  occasions  of  his  visits  to  the  "  special "  department. 
Every  child,  before  admission,  must  be  certified  by  the 
local  authority's  medical  officer  as  defective. 

The  hours  during  which  a  special  school  is  open  may 
vary  from  H  to  2h  each  session.  The  time-table  must 
provide  for  instruction  in  (1)  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, (2)  singing  and  recitation,  including  training  in 
proper  breathing,  (3)  nature  study  and  observation 
lessons,  (4)  drawing,  (5)  needlework  for  girls,  (6)  physical 
exercises,  (7)  manual  instruction — a  wide  interpretation  is 
given  to  this,  and  not  less  than  six  hours  weekly  must  be 
devoted  to  it. 

The  class-rooms  usually  accommodate  not  more  than 
20  scholars,  and  are  furnished  with  single  desks.  Rooms 
for  manual  instruction  are  also  provided  in  most  recently 
built  schools. 

Age  is  no  consideration  in  classifying  the  mentally 
defective.  When  there  are  sufficient  children  they  are 
usually  classified  into  three  groups  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction. Under  similar  conditions  the  physically  defec- 
tive are  classified  in  much  the  same  way ;  but  age  comes 
in  as  a  minor  consideration  occasionally.     Vivid  realistic 


"  SPECIAL    SCHOOLS."  183 

presentation,  combined  with  practical  work,  should  charac- 
terise all  the  instruction. 

The  law  demands  that  the  children  be  examined  "from 
time  to  time "  by  the  medical  officer,  and  that  proper 
records  be  kept.  The  practice  generally  is  for  the  medical 
officer  to  visit  twice  a  year  and  re-examine  the  scholars, 
for  under  the  Epileptic  and  Defective  Children's  Act,  1899, 
a  parent  can  insist  on  re-examination  of  a  child  every  six 
months.  When  any  child,  under  thirteen  years,  has  made 
sufficient  advancement  and  is  otherwise  fit,  he  is  drafted 
to  one  of  the  ordinary  school  departments. 

A  line  is  drawn  between  the  physically  and  mentally 
defective  in  educational  treatment.  Separate  buildings,  or 
buildings  structurally  separated  for  each  type,  are  therefore 
provided.  In  the  case  of  the  merely  physically  defective 
(cripples,  etc.)  whose  education  has  been  retarded  through 
illness,  it  is  generally  found  that  they  have  normal  capacity: 
hence  the  range  of  work  for  them  need  not  be  so  restricted 
as  in  the  case  of  the  mentally  defective.  Specially  con- 
structed desks  and  chairs,  and  all  those  easy  conveniences 
in  the  way  of  furniture  and  equipment  which  a  benevolent 
foresight  can  supply,  are  found,  as  a  rule,  associated  with 
these  centres.  A  trained  nurse  is  usually  attached  to 
each  centre ;  ambulances  bring  cripples  and  invalids  from 
home  to  school  and  back  again;  and  arrangements  are 
commonly  made  through  voluntary  aid,  the  parents  bear- 
ing part  of  the  expense,  to  give  these  afflicted  little  ones 
some  sustaining  refreshment  at  midday,  when  compelled 
to  remain  on  the  school  building. 

When  a  local  education  authority  has  ascertained  that 
there  are  within  its  area  some  defective  children,  other 
than  the  blind  and  deaf,  it  may — but  is  not  under  any 
legal  obligation  to  do  so — make  special  provision  for  the 
education  of  such  children. 


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184 


ABSTRACT  OF  TIME-TABLE  OF  A  SCHOOL  FOR  PHYSICALLY 

DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN. 


(Top) 
Glass 

(L 

i    General  Division  of  Time  Table. 

1. 

n. 

UL  |   9.35—  9.55. 

Scripture,  Hymns,  etc. 

Praet.  English 
Grammar  ... 

9.55—10.15. 

Singing  or  Recitation 

25 

25 

25 

alternately   (Classes 

Reading     

135 

135 

140 

I.   and    II.   combine 

Recitation     ... 

70 

70 

80 

and  take  Singing  in 

Writing     and 
Dictation  ... 

the  Hall  while  Class 

50 

50 

50 

III.  have  Recitation, 

Arithmetic    ... 

140 

140 

1 35 

and  vice  versa). 

Drawing    

55 

,^ 

G5 

10.15—10.45. 

First  Lesson. 

Geography    . . . 
Singing 

25 

25 

25 

25 

25 
9,5 

10.45—11.0. 
11.0  —11.5. 

Recreation . 
Breathing  Exercises. 

80 
100 

80 
100 

70 
100 

11.5  —11.30. 
11.30—11.55. 

Second  Lesson. 

Scripture 
Recreation    . . . 

Third  Lesson. 

75 

75 

75 

11.55—12.0. 

Preparation  for 

Nature   Study 

25 

25 

25 

Dinner,  etc. 

Breathing  Ex- 

1.30—2.25  p. 

m.   Handwork. 

25 

25 

25 

2.25 — 2.35     ,,      Singing  and  Recit. 

Handwork    . . . 

375 

375 

o-~ 

3/o 

2.35 — 3.0       ,,      Handwork. 

Notes. — Registers  closed  at  10.1.0  a.m.,  but  may  be  closed  at  10.30. 


OCCUPATIONS. 


Class  I. 

Drawing. 

Painting,  Design. 

Stencilling. 

Card  hoard  Modelling. 

Printing 

and  Illuminating. 

Knitting  and 

Needlework  (Girls). 

Embroidery, 

Crochet,  and  all  kinds 

of  Fancy  Work. 

Cane  Work. 

Manual  Training 

for  each  boy  in   this 

Class — one  day  a 

week. 


Class  II. 

Drawing. 

Painting, 

Macrame  (Boys). 

Fancy  Work  (Girls). 

Rug  Making. 

Wool  Mats. 

Cane  Work 

(Baskets,  etc.). 

Knitting. 

Plain  Needlework. 


Class  III. 

Drawing. 
Painting  on  Brown 

Paper. 

Modelling,  leading 

to 

Cardboard  Modelling. 

String  Work. 

Needlework  and 

Knitting. 
Elementary  Cane 

Work. 
Cla}'  Modelling. 


Gardening  is  taken  at  intervals  with  all  Classes. 

185 


186  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  Blind  and  Deaf. — By  the  Elementary  Education 
(Blind  and  Deaf  Children)  Act,  1893,  it  is  incumbent  on 
every  educational  authority  to  provide  an  "  efficient  and 
suitable"  education  for  blind  and  deaf  children  resident 
in  the  district.  The  same  authority  must  also  enforce 
the  law  of  compulsory  attendance,  in  the  case  of  blind 
children  from  five  to  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  deaf  from  seven  to  sixteen  years. 

Separate  schools  are  provided  for  these,  which  may  be 
either  day  or  residential  schools.  Both  kinds  are  found  in 
some  educational  areas.  The  children  receive  instruction 
in  the  ordinary  school  subjects — except  that  drawing  is 
obviously  not  taught  to  the  blind — particular  attention 
being  given  to  manual  and  industrial  training,  as  deftness 
of  hand  and  craft  knowledge  mostly  form  the  only  source 
of  a  livelihood  when  the  school  career  is  closed. 

As  these  schools  cannot  be  built  within  reasonable 
distance  of  every  child's  home,  travelling  expenses,  in  day 
school  cases,  are  allowed  to  children  living  beyond  walking 
distance  from  the  school ;  and  guides  sometimes  are  also 
provided  for  those  who  are  too  young  to  travel  alone.  The 
blind  children  are  now  usually  taught  reading  and  writing 
on  the  Braille  system.  The  manual  training  includes  work 
in  mat-making,  clay  modelling,  straw-plaiting,  rug  and 
basket  making,  chair-caning,  typewriting,  woodwork,  bent- 
iron  work,  and  the  domestic  arts  for  girls. 

In  the  case  of  the  deaf  the  "  oral "  (or  speech  and  lip- 
reading)  system  is  generally  adopted  as  the  chief  means  of 
instruction.  Sometimes  the  "  combined  system  "  is  used, 
which  includes  the  "  oral  "  with  manual  signs.  The  manual 
training  course  comprises  cane  and  cardboard  work,  stencil- 
ling, tailoring,  boot-making,  woodwork,  and  the  usual 
domestic  subjects  for  girls. 

It  is  almost  unnecessarv  to  sav  that  small  classes  in  all 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OP  SCHOOLS.  187 

these  "  special  schools  "  are  essential  to  efficiency.  Indeed, 
the  official  class  limit  for  the  blind  is  fifteen,  and  for  the 
deaf  ten. 

An  "  after  care  "  committee  to  safeguard  the  interests  of 
these  defective  children,  and  especially  to  secure  them  suit- 
able employment,  when  they  have  attained  the  leaving  age 
lias  been  found  a  useful  institution. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  a  unique  experiment  is  beiug 
carried  out  in  Mannheim,  where  intermediate  schools 
have  been  established — intermediate,  that  is,  between  the 
"  special "  and  the  ordinary  school.  These  have  been 
founded  because  (1)  it  has  been  shown  that  nearly  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  children  in  the  elementary  schools  are 
unable  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  scholar  with 
average  ability;  (2)  it  is  considered  that  such  children 
need  special  educational  and  hygienic  treatment ;  (3)  it 
is  further  considered  that  the  presence  of  these  children 
in  the  same  class  with  others  of  higher  mental  capabilities 
and  better  physique  tends  to  retard  general  progress. 

Accordingly  under  the  "  Mannheim  system  "  the  school 
is  organised  in  three  departments  :  (1)  the  normal  classes 
with  eight  grades,  (2)  the  backward  classes — Forderldassen 
— with  five  or  six  grades,  (3)  the  mentally  defective  classes 
with  four  or  five  grades. 

There  is  no  necessarily  permanent  attachment  of  scholars 
to  the  Forderldassen,  as  is  mostly  the  case  in  the 
mentally  defective  department.  With  advancement  in 
mental  grip,  the  pupils  are  promoted  from  the  inter- 
mediate classes  to  the  normal  department.  In  the  Forder- 
ldassen the  classes  are  limited  to  30  pupils,  whereas  in 
the  other  two  departments  the  numbers  range  from  48 
to  50. 

Of  the  few  objections  urged  against  this  system,  one  is 
worthy  of   mention   here,   viz.  "  There   is    a   tendency  to 


188  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

differentiate  children  solely  on  the  basis  of  their  intel- 
lectual capacity,  and  to  neglect  the  other  important  pro- 
blems of  school  life."1 

Open- Air  Schools.2 — These  schools,  for  many  years  a 
feature  of  the  German  educational  system,  are  now  recog- 
nised here,  both  official  and  voluntary  agencies  being  at 
work  in  some  areas  to  promote  their  development.  All 
those  immediately  associated  with  elementary  schools  in 
poor  localities  cannot  fail  to  realise  that  there  are  certain 
scholars  there  whose  physical  condition  renders  them  unfit 
to  profit  fully  by  the  instruction.  Debility  arising  mostly 
from  insufficient  nourishment  and  impure  air,  and  possibly 
also  incipient  disease,  are  generally  the  operative  causes, 
and  these  usually  imply  intellectual  retardation.  It  there- 
fore becomes  desirable  to  segregate  these  children,  and  as 
far  as  climatic  conditions  will  allow,  to  give  them  the 
benefit  of  open-air  training  under  conditions  calculated 
to  stimulate  both  physically  and  intellectually. 

Accordingly,  a  suitable  building  and  site  being  secured, 
boys  and  girls  of  this  type,  whose  homes  are  within  reason- 
able walking  distance  or  tram  ride,  form,  with  the  appro- 

1  Report  by  Dr.  F.  Rose. 

2  "  One  of  the  extractive  features  of  the  meetings  of  the  British 
Association  at  Sheffield  was  a  visit  to  an  open-air  school. 

"  The  party  arrived  about  three  o'clock.  '  Hush,'  said  the  guide, 
'the  children  are  resting.'  In  a  meadow  a  hundred  deck-chairs 
were  set  out,  in  each  of  which  sat  a  little  hoy  or  girl,  wrapped  in 
warm  blankets,  and  looking  very  comfortable,  though  many  were 
pitiably  white  and  thin. 

"  The  results  of  open  air,  regular  feeding,  and  cleanliness  are 
most  encouraging.  One  little  boy,  who  was  fading  away  for  want 
of  food,  gained  8  lb.  in  two  months. 

"  There  are  2,000  children  in  Sheffield  schools  who  ought  to  be 
treated  in  this  way,  but  at  present  there  is  room  for  only  a  hundred." 
— The  Little  Paj^er,  October  1010. 


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190  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

priate  staff,  an  open-air  school  for  a  period  of  four  or  five 
months  in  the  year.  Sheds  are  erected  in  the  grounds 
where  instruction  can  be  carried  on  in  wet  weather,  and 
where  the  scholars  can  take  their  afternoon  siesta  on  deck- 
chairs  provided  for  that  and  other  purposes.  The  primary 
conditions  of  admission  in  one  large  educational  area  are 

(a)  a  certificate  of  suitability  from  the  medical  officer,  and 

(b)  a  parental  guarantee  that  the  children  shall  not  take 
any  paid  employment  outside  school  hours.  Measure- 
ments of  each  scholar  are  taken  and  recorded  on  entry 
and  also  at  intervals. 

Similarly,  it  has  been  found  practicable  to  have  Play- 
ground Classes  in  connection  with  ordinary  schools  when 
the  conditions  are  favourable.  The  essential  conditions 
may  be  said  to  be  (1)  a  commodious  playground  with  a 
south  or  south-eastern  aspect,  as  little  as  possible  dis- 
turbed by  overlooking  eyes  or  street  traffic;  (2)  a  covered 
shed  for  use  in  inclement  weather ;  (3)  recognition  of 
the  limitations  imposed  by  winter,  early  spring,  and  late 
autumn. 

Classes  have  thus  been  organised  for  delicate  children 
when  the  full  advantages  of  the  open-air  school  are  not 
available.  These  have  taken  two  forms  :  (1)  the  collection 
of  children  of  approximately  equal  attainments  from  neigh- 
bouring schools  and  forming  them  into  a  class  in  one 
central  playground,  and  (2)  the  segregation  of  scholars 
from  various  classes  in  the  same  school  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Both  these  necessarily  involve  the  services  of  an  addi- 
tional teacher.  It  has  further  been  found  equally  practi- 
cable, without  disturbing  the  organisation  of  a  school,  to 
have  the  playground  in  almost  continuous  use,  during 
favourable  seasons,  either  for  one  ordinary  class,  or  for  a 
series  of  such  classes. 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS.  191 

Higher  Grade  Schools.—  Something  has  already  been 
accomplished  ill  the  way  of  bringing  elementary  school 
aims  nearer  to  those  associated  with  the  better  class 
secondary  school.  This  has  been  brought  about  by  the 
establishment  of  higher  grade  and,  later,  "  higher  elemen- 
tary "  schools. 

The  higher  grade  schools  have  not,  in  many  cases,  had  a 
proper  opportunity  of  fulfilling  their  mission.  Instead  of 
placing  these  institutions  on  a  solid  foundation  and  making 
them  capable  of  development  and  expansion,  some  of  the 
late  school  boards,  treading  on  uncertain  ground,  were 
content,  in  some  cases,  to  take  one  or  two  senior  depart- 
ments of  an  ordinary  school  and  convert  them  into  higher 
grade  departments  without  removing  the  lower  standards. 
It  was  thus  a  conversion  more  in  name  than  in  reality. 
This  type  of  higher  grade  school  is  gradually  disappearing. 
Those,  however,  which  started  with  an  independent  exist- 
ence and  gave  exclusive  attention  to  selected  scholars  have, 
as  a  rule,  been  a  success.  If  higher  grade  schools  are  to 
continue  as  one  of  the  crowning  points  of  primary  educa- 
tion, the  following  conditions  are  essential : — 

(1)  That  each  higher  grade  school  must  have  an  inde- 
pendent existence  and  be  complete  in  itself,  i.e.  it  must 
not  form  part  of  an  ordinary  school,  and  no  particular 
department  or  school  should  have  a  special  claim  upon  its 
accommodation. 

(2)  That  the  higher  grade  school  should  admit  no 
children  above  twelve  years  of  age,  or  below  full  Standard 
IV.  attainments. 

(3)  That,  as  a  rule,  only  those  should  be  admitted  to  the 
higher  grade  course  who  show  commendable  industry  and 
more  than  average  talent. l 

1  Exceptions  to  this  are  desirable  in  poor  districts. 


192  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  advantages  of  higher  grade  schools  of  the  best  type 
are : — 

(1)  It  is  an  incentive  to  industry  for  scholars  in  the 
ordinary  school  to  know  that  successful  devotion  to  work 
will  enable  them  later  to  go  to  an  institution  of  higher 
status  and  more  advanced  instruction. 

(2)  Scholars  of  ability  are  able  to  advance  more  rapidly 
when  they  are  better  classified,  have  highly  skilful  teachers, 
and  are  not  retarded  by  the  presence  of  children  possessing 
average  or  below  average  capabilities. 

(3)  The  higher  grade  school  increases  a  child's  oppor- 
tunities of  obtaining  a  scholarship  and  thus  passing  on  to 
a  secondary  or  technical  school.  It  also  improves  his  out- 
look and  widens  his  views. 

(4)  Generally,  the  superior  tone  of  a  higher  grade  school, 
arising  chiefly  from  the  mutually  stimulating  effect  of  the 
stronger  moral  power  possessed  by  scholars  of  firm  mental 
calibre  and  previously  recognised  good  conduct,  is  a  most 
valuable  force  in  forming  character.  These  scholars  must 
in  turn  influence  others  of  their  own  social  status  with 
Avhoin  they  are  brought  into  contact. 

(5)  The  higher  grade  department  is  a  fitting  transition 
school  for  those  going  later  to  trade  or  technical  schools. 

The  higher  grade  school  as  considered  here  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  "  Higher  Elementary,"  which  has 
official  recognition  as  part  of  the  elementary  school  system. 

The  Higher  Elementary  School. — A  higher  elemen- 
tary school,1  limited  generally  to  350  pupils,  must  be 
recognised  by  the  Board  of  Education  as  such,  and  the 
curriculum,  time-table,  premises,  and  equipment  must  also 
be  approved  by  the  same  central  authority.  The  school 
must  be  organised  to  give  a  complete  three  years'  course  of 

1  Arts.  37-42,  Code  1910. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    Uh'    SCHOOLS.  193 

graduated  instruction  :  but  a  fourth  year's  course  may  be 
taken  if  specially  sanctioned.  Oilier  main  conditions  of 
recognition  are  (1)  the  provision  of  special  instruction 
bearing  on  the  future  occupations  of  the  scholars;  (2) 
special  rooms  and  equipment   for   practical   instruction 

(3)  H.M.  Inspector  must  be  satisfied  that  each  scholar 
is  qualified  to  profit  by  the  kind  of   instruction  offered  ; 

(4)  each  scholar  must,  as  a  rule,  commence  with  the  first 
year's  course  and  proceed  upward  year  by  year;  (5)  the 
number  of  scholars  habitually  taught  in  a  class  should 
not  exceed  40 ;  ((5)  a  progressive  course  of  study  in 
English  language  and  literature,  mathematics,  history, 
geography,  drawing ;  also  manual  training  for  boys,  and 
domestic  subjects  for  girls ;  (7)  scholars  must,  as  a  rule, 
be  twelve  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  admission. 

The  curriculum  of  a  higher  elementary  school  should  be, 
in  tbc  fitting  words  of  Sir  liobert  Morant  in  discussing 
the  "  French  system  of  higher  primary  schools,"1  "at  once 
more  limited  in  duration  than  that  of  the  secondary 
school,  more  capable  of  assimilation  by  children  of  ex- 
elementary  attainments,  and  more  immediately  applicable 
to  actual  use  at  the  desk,  the  counter,  or  the  workshop, 
to  which  the  great  mass  of  the  scholars  are  inevitably 
bound  to  go  at  as  early  an  age  as  fifteen  or  sixteen." 

The  local  authority,  subject  to  condition  (3)  above, 
determines  what  shall  be  the  means  of  admission  to  a 
higher  elementary  school.  The  practice,  therefore,  in  this 
respect  varies  a  little.  The  regular  primary  schools  within 
reasonable  distance  are,  as  a  rule,  annually  invited  to 
nominate  scholars  for  the  neighbouring  higher  elementary 
school.  These  nominations  usually  exceed  the  number  of 
vacancies.  An  examination  is  therefore  held  in  some 
instances,   and   the   most   suitable   children    selected   for 

1  Special  Reports,  Vol.  I. 
s.  o.  15 


194  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

admission,  the  parents  giving  a  guarantee  that  their 
children  will  remain  at  school  to  complete  the  course. 
In  other  cases,  the  final  list  of  scholars  is  determined 
by  an  official  of  the  local  education  authority  in  consulta- 
tion with  the  head  teachers  immediately  concerned.  There 
is  therefore,  in  this  case,  no  formal  examination. 

A  similar  promise  is  usually  exacted  from  parents  when 
children  are  admitted  from  contributory  schools  to  a  higher 
grade  department. 

It  is  obvious,  since  the  age  and  time  limitation  for  each 
scholar  in  the  higher  elementary  school  is  the  close  of  the 
educational  year  in  which  he  attains  the  age  of  fifteen,  that 
each  child  should  secure  admission,  as  a  rule,  when  not 
more  than  twelve  years  old,  otherwise  the  conditional  three 
years'  course  of  instruction  cannot  be  completed. 

The  advantages  previously  attributed  to  education  in 
the  higher  grade  schools  apply  with  equal  force  to  the 
higher  elementary  school. 

Some  differences  between  the  higher  grade  and  the 
higher  elementary  school  have  been  already  noted.  Other 
differences  are  : — 

(1)  The  higher  elementary  schools  are  mainly  governed 
by  special  official  regulations,1  whereas  the  higher  grade 
schools  are  governed  by  the  same  Code  regulations  as 
ordinary  schools. 

(2)  The  higher  elementary  schools  whose  constitution  is 
determined  by  the  Board  of  Education  are  much  the  same 
in  character  throughout  the  country ;  whereas  the  higher 
grade  schools  vary  more  or  less  in  constitution  according 
to  the  educational  areas  in  which  they  are  situated. 

(3)  In  a  higher  elementary  school  a  scholar  must  take 
each  year's  course  in  succession,  unless  the  Board  of 
Education   specially  sanction  individual  departures  from 

1  Code  1910,  Chapter  VI. 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    SCHOOLS.  195 

this  rule.     In  the  higher  grade  schools  a  scholar  may  be 
promoted  at  the  head  teacher's  discretion. 

Generally  the  higher  elementary  department  has  proved 
a  more  satisfactory  form  of  superior  primary  school  than 
the  higher  grade  department,  probably  because  the  latter 
has  been  unduly  influenced  in  some  areas  by  local  con- 
ditions. It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  latter  form  may 
prove  the  more  suitable  in  very  poor  and  congested  districts, 
where  children  almost  invariably  leave  school  at  the  earliest 
opportunity.  It  would  be  a  gain,  when  the  number  of 
scholars  in  the  upper  classes  of  each  school  is  small,  to  have 
a  higher  grade  or  higher  standard  department  into  which 
the  whole  of  the  scholars  in  the  highest  or  the  two  highest 
classes  could  be  drafted.  If  only  a  two  years'  course  could 
be  secured  in  this  way,  with  the  opportunity  thus  afforded 
for  sound  classification  and  specialised  instruction,  it  would 
probably  prove  extremely  valuable  to  the  children  concerned. 

11  Central  Schools." — These  have  been  established  in 
the  metropolitan  area  to  take  the  place  of  the  higher  grade 
and  higher  elementary  schools.  They  are  intended  to  give 
an  educational  course  that  is  not  provided  for  either  in 
the  elementary  or  secondary  schools.  The  bias  of  the 
curricula  must  be  commercial  or  industrial  or  both, 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  locality ;  and  the  size  of 
any  class  must  not  exceed  40  pupils.  The  courses  of  in- 
struction must  cover  a  period  of  four  years  ;  and  boys  and 
girls  must  respectively  go  through  an  approved  course  in 
manual  training  and  domestic  economy. 

The  managing  bodies  of  central  schools  must  be  composed 
of  (i)  persons  nominated  by  the  Council ;  (ii)  persons 
nominated  by  the  managers  of  the  contributing  schools  ; 
(iii)  one  representative  from  the  borough  council  in  whose 
area  the  school  is  situated. 


196  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  elementary  school  pupils  who  will  be  less  than  12 
and  not  less  than  11  years  of  age  on  31st  July  in  the  year 
of  admission,  and  who  will  be,  as  a  rule,  working  in  the 
fifth  or  higher  standard  at  the  time  of  examination,  are 
eligible  for  admission  to  central  schools. 

Admission  to  central  schools  is  based  on — 

(i)  A  declaration  by  the  parent  of  the  child  seeking 
admission  of  his  intention  that  the  child  shall  remain  in 
the  school  long  enough  to  justify  the  change. 

(ii)  A  recommendation  of  the  head  teacher  of  the  con- 
tributing school  which  shall  have  regard  to  the  whole 
school  career  of  the  pupil  in  question. 

(iii)  The  managers'  recommendation  after  interview  with 
the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  children  concerned. 

A  limited  number  of  bursaries  of  an  annual  value  not 
exceeding  d£10,  tenable  at  the  central  schools,  is  awarded 
if  parents  of  eligible  candidates  are  unable  "  to  meet 
the  loss  of  wages  and  maintenance  charges  consequent 
upon  the  child's  attendance"  at  a  central  school.  The 
bursaries  only  operate  at  the  age  of  14 ;  but  the  circum- 
stances of  each  applicant  for  a  bursary  are  considered 
before  entry  into  the  central  school,  and  conditional 
promises  are  made  by  the  Council. 

The  character  of  the  building  for  a  central  school  has 
been  indicated  under  "  premises." 

The  establishment  of  this  type  of  school  is  the  outcome 
of  au  attitude  which  is  so  well  expressed  in  the  following 
words : — 

"  There  is  a  wide-spread  feeling  that  it  is  of  great 
importance,  in  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large,  to 
give  more  attention  to  the  development  of  '  practical ' 
education  in  the  elementary  schools.  Both  educationists 
and  men  of  affairs  seem  to  concur  in  the  view  that  educa- 
tion can  be  made  more  effective  if  the  pupils  can  be  taught 


VARIOUS    TYPES    OF    SCHOOLS.  197 

more  by  '  doing '  and  less  by  listening.  It  is  considered 
that  the  intelligence  of  both  boys  and  girls  can  be  stimu- 
lated and  trained  not  only  by  the  imparting  and  acquisition 
of  knowledge  by  means  of  books,  but  also  by  the  exercise 
of  hand  and  eye  upon  concrete  objects.  It  is  felt  that  a 
boy  on  leaving  the  elementary  school  should  have  had  an 
all-round  training  of  his  faculties,  and  should  have  ac- 
quired that  readiness  and  adaptability  which  will  enable 
him  to  turn  his  hand  to  the  task  that  awaits  him  in  the 
workshop  or  factory.  Working-class  parents  are  them- 
selves fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  obtaining  this  kind 
of  training  for  their  children,  as  is  shown  by  the  recent 
formation  of  the  National  Industrial  Education  League, 
which  has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  a  system  of 
education  for  boys  in  the  elementary  schools  which  will 
enable  them  to  hold  their  own  in  the  industrial  world. 
The  formation  of  the  various  Trade  Consultative  Com- 
mittees, which  are  now  assisting  the  Council  in  its  work  of 
technical  education,  also  shows  the  importance  which  the 
workers  in  the  various  trades  attach  to  education.  Another 
sign  of  the  present  trend  of  thought  is  given  by  the  fact 
that  a  deputation  from  the  metropolitan  borough  councils 
recently  called  attention  to  the  importance  of  making 
education  in  elementary  schools  more  practical." 

The  Committee  regard  this  movement  of  public  opinion 
as  "  an  indication  of  the  method  which  the  Council  should 
adopt  in  the  organisation  of  the  proposed  schools.  They 
should  be  schools  which  will  give  their  pupils  a  definite 
bias  towards  some  kind  of  industrial  or  commercial  work 
while  ensuring  that  their  intelligence  should  be  fully 
developed,  and  they  should  occupy  a  distinct  position  from 
the  secondary  school.  They  should  avowedly  frame  their 
curricula  with  a  view  to  the  pupils  leaving  at  an  age 
between  15  and  16.     Their  courses  should  be  so  framed 


198  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

as  to  provide  for  the  pupil  tlie  best  possible  equipment  for 
entering  upon  the  industrial  or  commercial  world  as  soon 
as  be  leaves  school,  while  at  the  same  time  qualifying  him 
to  enter  upon  a  special  course  of  training  for  some 
particular  industry  at  a  polytechnic  or  similar  institution, 
if  he  desires  to  continue  his  education  further."1 

In  most  of  these  superior  primary  schools  the  instruc- 
tion is  organised  on  a  three  or  four  years'  basis.  Generally, 
however,  comparatively  few  scholars  remain  to  complete  the 
fourth  year  course.  The  classification  of  the  pupils  rests 
on  these  annual  courses,  which  are  carefully  correlated. 

It  is  usual  to  allow  a  fairly  liberal  staff,  one  that  enables 
the  organiser  to  attach  a  teacher  to  each  class ;  and  in  a 
school  of  about  300  pupils  and  upwards  still  to  have,  at 
least,  two  other  members  of  the  staff  free  for  laboratory 
work  or  art  teaching.  Generally,  too,  each  class  master  or 
mistress  is  a  specialist  in  one  subject  which  he  or  she 
teaches  in  every  part  or  some  parts  of  the  school :  so  that 
specialisation  may  be  said  to  play  a  dominant  part  in  the 
instruction.  Most  schools  of  this  type  have  a  definite  bias 
which  is  either  wholly  commercial  or  industrial.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  bias  is  predominantly  commercial,  with 
a  smaller  section  industrial,  or  vice  versa. 

Whatever  the  bias,  the  organiser  should  be  guided  by 
certain  general  principles  in  determining  the  curriculum, 
syllabuses,  courses,  and  the  proper  distribution  of  time 
over  the  various  subjects.  Many  of  these  principles  are 
indicated  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  time-tables 
for  the  ordinary  school ;  but  with  regard  to  the  type  of 
school  now  under  consideration,  there  is  a  danger  of  loss 
of  balance  in  the  training  if  the  claims  of  the  bias  are  not 
adjusted  to  general  needs. 

1  Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  Education  Committee  of  the 
L.C.  Council,  1910. 


THE    SUPERIOR    PRIMARY    SCHOOL. 


199 


The  following  principles  should  therefore  operate  in 
drawing  up  the  time-table  : — (1)  The  education  should  be 
broad  enough  to  enable  the  scholar  to  adapt  himself  to  any 
occupation.  (2)  The  courses  and  general  method  having 
been  definitely  settled  and  adjusted  to  the  end  in  view, 
disturbing  factors,  such  as  preparation  for  examinations, 
should  not  be  introduced.  (3)  A  modern  language  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  included  in  the  curriculum,  and  not  less  than 
three  hours  a  week  devoted  to  it.  (4)  Every  boy  and 
girl  should  go  through  an  approved  course  of  handicraft 
and  domestic  economy  respectively.  (5)  Scripture  in- 
struction should  be  given  daily.  (6)  Arithmetical  opera- 
tions in  connection  with  simple  account-keeping — but  not 
set  forms  of  book-keeping — should  form  part  of  the  curri- 
culum. (7)  Shorthand  and  typewriting  should  not  be 
included  in  the  courses  of  instruction,  even  in  schools 
with  a  commercial  bias,  until  the  third  and  fourth  years 
of  training  are  respectively  reached. 

The  following  are  abstracts  of  time-tables  in  operation 
at  highly  successful  schools  : — 

HIGHER   GRADE   SCHOOL.— BOYS'    DEPARTMENT. 

Time-table. 


Subjects  of  Instruction. 

1st  Year. 

2nd 

Year. 

3rd  Year. 

4tii  Year. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

lir. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Reading 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

English,  Composition,  \ 
Spelling,  G  rammar, 

5 

30 

5 

30 

4 

0 

4 

0 

Literature 

History 

Geography 
French  ... 

1 
1 
3 

30 

30 

0 

1 
1 
o 

30 

30 

0 

I 
1 

o 
.) 

30 

30 
0 

1 
1 
3 

30 

30 

0 

Mathematics   ... 

5 

0 

5 

0 

5 

0 

5 

0 

Chemistry,  Theoretical 
,,           Practiced 

1 

0 

1 

0 

I 
1 

0 
30 

1 
1 

0 

30 

Drawing,  2 hr.  ;  Singing,  1  hr.  ;  Scripture,  2hr.  30  min.  ;  Physical 
Exercises,  1  hr.  ;  Recreation,  1  hr.  40  min.  ;  Registration,  50  min. 


200 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


HIGHER   GRADE    SCHOOL —GIRLS'    DEPARTMENT. 

Time-table. 


1st  " 

i'EAR. 

2nd  Year. 

3rd  Year. 

4th  Year. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

II  r. 

Min. 

Arithmetic,  inc.  Mental 

and  Practical  work 

4 

0 

3 

50 

3 

20 

3 

0 

English  Subjects,  inc. 

Literature  and  Comp. 

6 

30 

5 

20 

5 

0 

5 

0 

History 

1 

0 

1 

10 

1 

10 

1 

10 

(*eog.  and  Mapping  ... 

1 

0 

1 

20 

1 

20 

1 

20 

Drawing 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

0 

2 

0 

Needlework     ... 

2 

10 

o 

0 

2 

0 

1 

30 

Science,  inc.  Hygiene  . . . 

0 

40 

0 

40 

0 

40 

0 

30 

Nature  Study 

0 

40 

0 

40 

1 

10 

1 

30 

Experimental 

in  Lab. 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

30 

French 

3 

0 

3 

0 

3 

0 

3 

0 

Domestic  Subjects. — Average  2  hr.  45  min.  per  week.     Deduction 
spread  over  the  above  subjects  according  to  the  day,  a.m.  or  p.m. 


Registration  ... 

30  min. 

weckl}'. 

Scripture 

.     2  hr. 

30  min. 

>' 

Recreation 

.     1  hr. 

40  min. 

) » 

Physical  Exercises    . 

.     1  hr. 

ti 

Singing 

.     1  hr. 

•>■> 

THE  SUPERIOR  PRIMARY  SCHOOL. 


201 


HIGHER  GRADE  SCHOOL.— MIXED  DEPARTMENT. 

Time-table. 


Subjects  of  Instruction. 

1ST"? 

EAR. 

2nd  Year. 

3rd  ^ 

^EAR. 

4th  Year. 

B. 

G. 

B. 

G. 

B. 

G. 

B. 

G. 

English        

4-45 

4-30 

4-45 

4-0 

4-30 

4-30 

4-30 

4-30 

Mathematics 

4-45 

3-45 

4-45 

3-40 

4-30 

4-0 

3-30 

3-30 

Geography... 

1-30 

1-15 

1-30 

1-20 

1-30 

1-30 

1-30 

1-30 

History 

1-30 

1-40 

1  -25 

1-30 

1-30 

1-30 

1-15 

1-30 

Science 

2-0 

1-30 

2-45 

2-10 

3-25 

3-0 

4-0 

4-0 

French 

3-0 

3-0 

3-0 

3-0 

3-30 

3-30 

4-0 

4-0 

Drawing     ... 

2-20 

2-20 

2-20 

2-20 

1-0 

1-45 

1-0 

1-20 

Prac.  Geometry  and 

Mech.  Drawing... 

40 

45 

1-20 

50 

1-30 

1-0 

Singing       

45 

45 

45 

45 

45 

Manual  Training  ... 

2-20 

2-20 

2-20 

2-20 

Needlework 

2-30 

2-30 

2-15 

1-30 

Domestic  Subjects . 

2-20 

2-20 

Home  Work,  Exam. 

and  Setting 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

1-15 

Physical  Exercises,  1  hr.  ;  Recreation,  1  hr.  40  min.  ; 
Scripture,  2  hr.  30  min. 

HIGHER  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL.— MIXED  DEPARTMENT. 


Time 

-TABLE. 

Subjects  of  Instruction. 

1st  Year. 

2nd  Year. 

3rd  Year. 

4tii  Year. 

B. 

G. 

B. 

G. 

B.         G. 

B.         G. 

French 

3-0 

3-0 

3-0 

3-0 

3-0     3-0 

3-0     30 

English  Subjects  ... 

4-0 

4-0 

4-0 

40 

3-30  3-30 

3-30  3-30 

History 

2-0 

2-0 

2-0 

2-0 

20     2-0 

2-0     2-0 

Geography... 

2-0 

2-0 

2-0 

20 

2-0     2-0 

2-0     2-0 

Mathematics 

4-0 

3-0 

4-0 

30 

4-0     3  0 

4-0     3-0 

Practical  Science  ... 

2-0 

1-40 

20 

1-40 

3-0     2-10 

3-0     2-10 

Drawing     ... 

2-0 

1-0 

2-0 

1-0 

2-0     1-30 

2-0     1-30 

Music 

1-0 

1-0 

1-0 

1-0 

30      30 

(Choir) 

30      30 

(Choir) 

Man.  Training  (B.) 

2-20 

220 

2-20 

2-20 

Needlework  (G.)  ... 

220 

2-20 

2-20 

2-20 

Dom.  Subjects  (G. ) 

2-20 

2-20 

220 

2-20 

Drill,  1  hr.  ;  Scripture,  2  hr.  30  min.  ;  Recreation,  1  hr.  40  min. 
Note. — The  Science  for  the  Girls  to  be  correlated  with  the  Domestic  Subjects. 


202 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


CENTRAL  SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS. 


1st  Year. 

2nd  Year. 

3rd  Year. 

4th  Year. 

Subject. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Hr. 

Min. 

Recreation 

1 

40 

1 

40 

1 

40 

1 

40 

Scripture 

2 

30 

2 

30 

2 

30 

2 

30 

Algebra 

1 

20 

1 

40 

1 

40 

1 

20 

Geometry 

1 

20 

1 

40 

1 

20 

Arithmetic  (a) 

3 

0 

2 

40 

3 

0 

3 

40 

Eng.  Gram.  &  Comp. ... 

40 

2 

20 

2 

20 

2 

40 

Readg.,  Rec,  &  Liter. 

1 

20 

1 

20 

1 

40 

1 

40 

History 

1 

20 

1 

20 

1 

20 

1 

20 

Geography       

1 

40 

1 

40 

1 

30 

1 

20 

French  ... 

3 

20 

3 

20 

3 

50 

3 

50 

Science... 

1 

50 

1 

50 

1 

20 

Physical  Exercises     ... 

50 

50 

1 

0 

50 

Singing  (6)       

40 

40 

40 

40 

Manual  Training 

2 

20 

2 

20 

Drawing 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

Shorthand 

2 

0 

2 

20 

Business  Methods 

2 

0 

Writing   and    Spelling 

40 

40 

40 

40 

(a)  Including  business  accounts. 

(?>)  Or  Private  Study  for  those  whose  voices  are  breaking. 

General  Note. — In  all  these  Time-tables,  whether  the  subjects  are  specified  in  the 
abstracts  or  not,  Manual  Training  for  Boys  and  Domestic  Economy  for  Girls  ai-e 
taken.  Where  not  specified,  they  are  taken  at  the  expense  of  one  or  more  other 
subjects  named  in  the  table. 


TIIE    SUPERIOR    PRIMARY    SCHOOL. 


203 


TIME  TABLE  »    FOR    A     HIGHER     ELEMENTARY     PRUSSIAN 

SCHOOL   (BOYS'). 


Subjects  of  Instruction. 

Number  of  Weekly  Hours. 

(Highest.) 

(Lowest.) 

1. 

2 

ir. 

ill. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

3 

Religion             

2 

2 

3 

3 

German,  inch  Reading  and  Writing  . 

4 

6 

8 

12 

12 

12 

Arithmetic 

3 

3 

3 

5 

5 

o 

Elements  of  Geometry 
Natural  Science 

3 

2 

Q 

2 

2 
2 

— - 

— 

— 

Physics  (Chemistry)   ... 

Geography 

History ...         ... 

French  (or  English)     ... 

3 
2 

2 
5 

2 
2 
2 
5 

o 
2 

5 

o 

4-1 

— 

— ■ 

Drawing 

2 

2 

2 

2 

— 

— 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

2 
2 

32 

2 
2 

32 

2 
2 

32 

2 

2 

28 

2 
2 

24 

2 
2 

24 

Total            

The  superior  primary  schools  of  Germany  are  similar  to 
some  of  the  higher  grade  type  (not  the  higher  elementary) 
in  this  country,  inasmuch  as  the  lower  classes  correspond 
to  those  in  the  ordinary  primary  school.  In  France,  how- 
ever, the  Ecoles  primaires  superieures 2  are  built  somewhat 
on  the  lines  of  the  higher  elementary  here.  A  pupil  of  the 
regular  elementary  school,  having  obtained  the  certificat 
(V etudes     (leaving   certificate),     can   go    to    the    superior 

1  See  History  and  Organisation  of  PvUic  Education  in  the  German 
Empire,  by  Dr.  Lexis. 

2  See  Special  Reports,  Vol.  7. 


204  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

primary  school  for  a  three  years'  course  of  instruction. 
During  the  first  year  the  instruction  is  of  a  general 
character,  but  for  the  second  and  third  year  pupils  the 
curriculum  is  divided  into  three  sections  or  courses,  to  any 
one  of  which  the  pupil  must  give  his  exclusive  attention. 
These  courses  are  designated  (1)  the  Commercial,  (2)  the 
Industrial,  (3)  the  Agricultural.  Theory  and  practice  are 
judiciously  blended.  There  is  no  attempt  to  teach  a 
business  or  trade.  The  idea  is,  in  the  closing  years  of 
school  life,  that  a  child  should  have  an  opportunity,  under 
careful  guidance,  of  developing  his  powers  on  the  lines 
suitable  to  his  particular  bent. 

In  Holland  the  Burgher  and  Higher  Burgher  schools 
occupy  an  intermediate  position  between  the  regular 
elementary  and  the  higher  secondary  schools  (Gymnasia). 
The  curricula,  however,  of  the  Higher  Burgher  schools  are 
generally  of  a  more  ambitious  type  than  that  of  the  higher 
elementary  schools  in  this  country. 

The  Contributory  School. — The  Contributory  school, 
being  a  regular  elementary  school  with  its  seven  or  eight 
grades  or  standards,  holds  relatively  to  the  superior 
primary  school  a  position  of  remote  subordination,  inas- 
much as  the  finer  material  in  its  upper  classes  is  subject 
to  requisition.  The  novelty  of  this  position,  when  first 
created,  naturally  led  to  heart-burnings  on  the  part  of 
some  of  the  teachers  of  the  Contributory  schools.  On  the 
whole,  however,  they  displayed  a  worthy  public  spirit  by 
the  way  in  which  most  of  the  superior  schools  were 
supported,  when  time  had  smoothed  away  the  earlier 
apprehensions.  It  was  recognised  that  though  the  Con- 
tributory system  had  its  defects,  the  educational  gain,  by 
the  transfer  of  selected  scholars  to  the  superior  primary 
school,  outweighed  them  many  times. 


THE    CONTINUATION    SCHOOL.  205 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  child  who  migrates  from 
school  to  school  suffers  by  the  change  in  many  ways ;  but 
this  does  not  apply  to  the  passage  of  the  older  children 
from  the  ordinary  to  the  superior  primary  school.  The 
means  of  minimising  the  educational  loss  caused  chiefly 
through  capricious  or  necessary  migration  is  one  of  serious 
moment.  Various  partial  remedies  have  been  suggested  : — 
(1)  The  adoption  of  a  uniform  educational  year  for  all 
schools ;  (2)  A  practically  uniform  curriculum  for  schools 
in  the  same  educational  area  ;  (3)  An  organised  system 
promoted  by  the  local  education  authority  to  prevent 
capricious  migration  from  school  to  school. 

The  Continuation  School.— This  term,  as  understood 
here,  applies  to  both  day  and  evening  classes  that  provide 
for  technical  or  general  training,  or  for  the  continuation  of 
a  pupil's  education,  after  leaving  the  regular  day  school. 
The  whole  of  these  classes  may  be  divided  into  (1)  Day 
classes,  (2)  Evening  classes,  (3)  Correspondence  classes. 

(1)  Bay  Classes. — The  Day  classes  have  mostly  been 
established  at  technical  institutes  for  the  use  of  artisans 
and  apprentices  in  skilled  trades,  the  employers  co-operat- 
ing with  the  educational  authority  for  this  purpose.  In 
England  the  general  and  intimate  connection  between  the 
industries  on  the  one  hand  and  education  on  the  other,  such 
as  exists  in  America,  is  mostly  wanting.  There  is,  how- 
ever, evidence  that  this  country  is  awakening  to  the  import- 
ance of  the  link  since  attention  has  been  so  forcibly  directed 
to  the  practice  of  other  countries  in  this  connection. 

Thus  in  several  large  towns  certain  employers  of  labour 
are  allowing  apprentices  likely  to  profit  by  a  course  of 
special  training  to  attend  suitable  classes  during  the  day 
at  the  technical  institutes,  attendance  at  such  classes  being 
deemed  practically  equivalent  to  attendance  at  the  works. 


20G  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Middlesborough,  Birmingham,  Swindon,  and  Woolwich 
may  be  cited  as  examples.  Exhibitions,  too,  in  various 
subjects,  instituted  by  some  local  authorities,  provide  for 
free  education  in  approved  evening  classes. 

The  Woolwich  Arsenal  authorities  have  co-operated  with 
the  governors  of  the  Polytechnic  in  the  district  in  order 
to  insure  the  proper  technical  training  of  lads  engaged 
in  the  Royal  Arsenal.  During  the  first  three  years  of 
apprenticeship  a  lad  receives  instruction  in  prescribed  sub- 
jects at  the  Polytechnic  during  one  afternoon  and  three 
evenings  a  week,  the  minimum  time  being  ten  hours. 
Regularity  of  attendance,  good  conduct,  and  sound  applica- 
tion are  insisted  upon.  Each  lad  pays  a  small  annual  fee 
to  cover  instruction,  cost  of  books,  drawing  outfit  and 
paper,  such  fees  being  refunded  by  the  Arsenal  authority 
if  attendance  and  progress  have  been  satisfactory  through- 
out the  year.  Attendance  is  also  compulsory  in  the  fourth 
year,  but  is  confined  to  the  evenings  only  and  a  choice  of 
studies  is  then  permissible,  as  seen  below. 

Fourth  Year  Course. — Three  evenings  per  week  for 
forty  weeks.  Subjects — Lads  will  make  a  choice  from  the 
following  subjects,  the  course  of  study  to  be  approved  in 
each  case  by  the  Principal  of  the  Polytechnic  : — Practical 
Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  Mechanical  Engineering,  Elec- 
trical Engineering,  Mathematics,  Mechanics  (Theoretical 
and  Applied),  Experimental  Physics  (Sound,  Heat,  Optics, 
Electricity,  Magnetism),  Chemistry,  Metallurgy,  Building 
Trades  subjects,  and  such  other  subjects  as  may  be  ap- 
proved from  time  to  time. 

In  the  laboratories  the  lads  work  in  pairs,  but  each  one 
must  keep,  in  a  book  provided  for  the  purpose,  a  record  of 
the  experiments  made.  The  Principal  of  the  Polytechnic 
sends  weekly  reports  on  each  lad's  conduct  and  work  to 
the  chief  superintendent  of  the  Arsenal. 


CONTINUATION    SCHOOLS.  20? 

In  order  to  encourage  home  work  and  to  insure  its  being 
done  under  favourable  conditions,  a  room  is  reserved  for 
the  lads  at  the  Polytechnic  and  a  teacher  placed  in  charge 
of  it.  This  supervision,  besides  quietude  of  study,  secures 
assistance  to  individual  students  who  may  stand  in  need 
of  help.  This  work  of  preparation  involved  in  private 
study  is  compulsory  and  is  included  in  the  ten  hours 
already  mentioned. 

It  is  now  recognised  that  technical  schools  should  get 
into  touch,  and  maintain  intimate  relations,  with  those 
employers  whose  apprentices  and  workmen  are  likely  to 
profit  by  a  course  of  technical  training.  Such  employers 
can,  as  a  rule,  tender  valuable  advice  concerning  the  kind 
of  studies  desirable  for  their  employees. 

In  a  town  in  the  north  of  England  a  number  of  appren- 
tices are  set  free  from  their  employment  at  certain  times 
in  order  that  they  may  attend  classes  specially  arranged 
for  them  in  the  local  technical  school  in  engineering 
and  allied  trades ;  the  courses  extend  over  two  sessions 
of  eight  months  each ;  students  in  their  first  year  attend 
for  one  morning  and  one  afternoon  a  week,  and  those  in 
their  second  year  for  two  afternoons  a  week,  or  four  hours 
in  all.  The  fees  are  paid  by  the  employers ;  the  appren- 
tices pay  for  books  and  materials,  but  receive  their  wages 
for  the  periods  of  absence  from  work  granted  to  enable 
them  to  attend  the  classes.  The  time  spent  by  apprentices 
in  attendance  at  the  day  classes  is  counted  in  their  term 
of  apprenticeship,  and  preference  is  given  by  the  employers 
in  filling  vacancies  in  their  works  to  those  who  attend  the 
classes.  The  employers  are  represented  on  the  governing 
body  of  the  technical  school. 

The  local  education  authority  at  a  railway  centre  in  the 
south  of  England  has  provided  in  the  technical  institute 
classes  for  engineering  apprentices  in  the  employment  of 


208  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  railway  company.  The  apprentices  are  allowed  to 
attend  a  four  years'  course,  arranged  in  the  case  of  the 
first  year  of  instruction  for  2|  hours  for  one  morning  a 
week,  and  in  the  case  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
years  for  3^  hours  a  week,  spread  over  two  mornings. 
Again,  at  a  railway  centre  in  the  north  of  England,  the 
technical  school  carries  on  a  course  on  the  construction  and 
management  of  the  locomotive  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  engine  drivers,  firemen,  and  engine  cleaners ;  the  in- 
struction is  for  two  hours  on  one  morning  a  week. 

In  a  centre  of  chemical  manufacture  special  arrange- 
ments are  made  for  the  instruction  of  trade  apprentices  of 
large  engineering  and  chemical  works.  In  the  case  of  one 
firm  the  employers  require  that  their  employees  shall 
attend  an  evening  school  until  they  are  19  years  of  age; 
but  some  of  the  apprentices  of  this  and  of  another  firm 
are  allowed  to  attend  for  instruction  for  four  hours  on 
two  afternoons  a  week  for  40  weeks  in  the  year  during 
the  last  two  years  of  their  apprenticeship,  without  loss  of 
wages  during  their  absence  from  the  works  ;  the  employers 
pay  the  fees  for  these  classes,  and  attendance  there  is 
regarded  by  them  as  a  very  important  part  of  the  ap- 
prenticeship. 

In  a  large  industrial  centre  the  local  education  authority 
has  provided  apprentice  day  courses  for  engineering, 
plumbers'  work,  and  painters'  and  decorators'  work  ;  the 
various  courses  range  over  two  or  more  years  and  involve 
attendance  for  one  whole  day  a  week  throughout  the  year.1 

Day  classes  at  technical  institutes  are  also  available  for 
those  who,  before  assuming  the  responsibities  of  appren- 
ticeship, desire  to  go  through  a  course  of  specialised  in- 
struction relating  to  the  trade  or  technical  profession  they 
propose  to  adopt. 

1   Vide  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  1908-1909. 


CONTINUATION    SCHOOLS.  209 

Such  institutions  afford  systematic  instruction  in  day 
classes  in  courses  extending  over  two  or  more  years, 
and  adapted  for  the  preparation  of  young  men  for  em- 
ployment in  connection  with  the  trades,  manufactures,  and 
commerce  of  the  country;  they  also  provide  the  higher 
courses  of  specialised  instruction  in  science  in  relation  to 
particular  industries.  Corresponding  provision  is  made 
for  advanced  instruction  in  art  in  the  daytime,  under 
conditions  which  lend  themselves  to  the  arrangement  of 
courses  of  instruction  aiming  at  the  preparation  of 
students  for  work  connected  with  the  applications  of 
art  to  the  industries. 

(2)  Evening  Schools. — These  necessarily  vary  in  kind 
according  to  diversity  of  conditions  in  various  localities. 
Roughly,  for  the  larger  centres  of  population,  the  evening 
schools  may  be  classified  under — 

(i)  Ordinary  schools,  meeting  generally  three  or  four  times 
a  week  from  7.30  to  9.30  p.m. 

(ii)  Commercial  schools,  meeting  generally  five  evenings  a 
week  from  7  to  10  o'clock. 

(iii)  Science  and  Art  schools,  meeting  generally  five  even- 
ings a  week  and  on  Saturday  mornings. 

(iv)  Technical  Institutes  and  Polytechnics.  Day  and 
evening  classes. 

(v)  Schools  of  Art.     Day  and  evening  classes. 

As  a  condition  precedent  to  the  earning  of  grants,  these 
schools  must  conform  to  the  Eegulations  of  the  Board  of 
Education  for  technical  schools,  schools  of  art,  and  other 
forms  of  provision  for  further  education.  These  regula- 
tions are  to  some  extent  wide  in  order  to  enable  local 
authorities  to  establish  classes  suitable  to  the  economical 
conditions  and  industrial  needs  of  the  district. 

Students  may  not  be  registered  for  grant-earning  pur- 
s.  o.  10 


210  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

poses  who  are  under  twelve  years  of  age,  or  who  are  earn- 
ing grant  under  other  regulations  of  the  Board. 

The  organisation  of  ordinary  evening  schools  has  been 
generally  based  on  subjects  of  instruction,  each  class  being, 
as  it  were,  a  miniature  school  in  itself.  The  courses  of 
instruction  have  been  either  mostly  directed  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  general  education,  or  confined  within  the 
narrow  channels  of  purely  vocational  claims,  and  usually 
arranged  to  cover  a  session  of  seven  or  eight  months' 
duration.  While  plans  of  this  nature  are  serviceable  up 
to  a  point,  they  generally  involve  much  dissipation  of 
energy,  because  that  sustained  interest  is  missing  which 
accompanies  a  broader  based  and  more  organised  course 
of  study.  Organised  courses  extending  over  periods 
from  two  to  four  years  are  therefore  gradually  becom- 
ing the  dominant  feature  in  evening  school  organisation. 
The  one-subject  basis  is  no  longer  a  tenable  one,  and 
must  be  displaced  by  the  organised  course,  which  may 
now  be  regarded  as  the  unit  in  evening  school  classifi- 
cation. 

The  name  Commercial  schools  suggests  the  subjects 
of  instruction.  They  aim  at  such  preparation  as  will 
enable  pupils  to  qualify  for  commercial  life,  or  at  the 
extended  usefulness  of  those  students  already  engaged 
in  it. 

The  Science  and  Art  schools  generally  arrange  specific 
courses  of  instruction  in  the  various  sciences,  etc.,  recog- 
nised by  the  Board  of  Education.  Laboratory  or  practical 
work  supplements  the  theoretical  lessons.  No  provision  is 
made,  as  a  rule,  for  technical  instruction  on  the  lines  of 
trade  classes. 

The  technical  institutes  and  schools  of  art,  on  the  other 
hand,  generally  specialise  in  the  direction  of  trade  classes 
and  in  art  training  as  applied  to  the  industries.     Many 


LINKING    DAT    WITH    EVENING    SCHOOLS.  211 

polytechnics,  however,  include  in  their  curricula  such  sub- 
jects as  are  taught  in  the  commercial  schools,  and  also,  in 
a  more  advanced  form,  many  of  the  subjects  taught  at  the 
science  and  art  schools. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Messrs.  Brunner,  Mond 
and  Co.,  of  Cheshire,  have  made  it  a  rule  not  to  employ 
any  boy  unless  he  has  passed  Standard  VI.  and  undertakes 
to  attend  an  evening  school  until  he  is  19  years  of  age. 
This  firm's  determination  has  had  a  salutary  effect  upon 
the  youths  in  the  neighbourhood  in  the  way  of  encouraging 
evening  education. 

There  should,  of  course,  in  every  district,  be  a  complete 
link  and  a  well-defined  co-ordination  between  various  even- 
ing institutions,  and  provision  made  for  the  educational 
needs  of  every  section  of  the  community. 

Some  means  of  linking  the  Day  with  the  Evening 
School : — 

(i)  That  the  first  step  in  linking  the  day  and  evening 
schools  should  be  to  secure  effective  co-operation  from  the 
head  teacher  of  the  day  school,  who  should  accept  some 
measure  of  moral  responsibility  for  the  immediate  passage 
of  his  scholars  to  the  evening  classes. 

(ii)  That  children  in  attendance  at  day  schools  should 
be  allowed  to  attend  the  ordinary  evening  schools,  pro- 
vided they  have  attained  the  age  of  13  on  July  31st  pre- 
ceding the  opening  of  the  evening  schools,  or  are  exempt 
from  attendance  at  day  school,  though  actually  in  attend- 
ance there,  the  conditions  being — 

(a)  That  they  be  admitted  free  of  charge. 

(6)  That  the  consent  of  the  head  teacher  be  given 
to  the  child's  attendance  at  evening  school. 

(c)  That  the  time  of  attendance  be  limited  as  a  rule 
to  two  evenings  a  week. 


212  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(iii)  That  scholars  who  are  legally  exempt  from  further 
attendance  at  day  school  should  be  admitted  free  to  an 
ordinary  evening  school  on  the  recommendation  of  their 
head  teacher,  provided  they  join  that  evening  school 
within  one  month  of  the  earliest  possible  date  after  leaving 
the  day  school. 

(iv)  That  children  who  have  obtained  a  leaving  certifi- 
cate from  a  higher  elementary  school  or  higher  grade 
school  having  no  standard  below  the  fifth,  and  who  are 
certified  by  their  head  teachers  as  being  qualified  to  profit 
by  the  teaching  afforded  in  a  commercial  centre,  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  centre  without  payment  of  fees;  provided 
application  for  admission  is  made  within  one  month  of  the 
earliest  possible  date  after  leaving  the  higher  elementary 
or  higher  grade  school. 

(v)  Co-operation  should  be  secured  through  old  scholars' 
clubs,  brigades,  school  newspapers,  etc.,  associated  with  the 
day  school. 

(vi)  A  list  of  evening  schools  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood, with  subjects  generally  taught  and  conditions 
of  admission  thereto,  should  be  placed  on  a  board  to  be 
fixed  in  the  hall,  corridor,  or  senior  class-room  of  the  day 
school. 

(vii)  The  head  teacher  and  staff  should  seize  seasonable 
opportunities  for  directing  the  attention  of  scholars  to  the 
evening  schools. 

(viii)  A  small  pamphlet  on  the  evening  schools,  setting 
forth  reasons  which  should  induce  boys  and  girls  to  con- 
tinue their  education,  would  be  valuable.  Examples  should 
be  cited  how  men  and  women  have  become  a  great  force  in 
the  State  through  continuing  their  education  in  the  even- 
ings. This  pamphlet  should  be  placed  in  the  scholar's 
hands  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  year  at  the  day 
school. 


LINKING    DAY    WITH    EVENING    SCHOOLS.  2l3 

(ix)  As  far  as  possible  scholars  should  be  encouraged 
to  attend  that  evening  school  to  which  their  day  school  is 
contributory. 

(x)  Day  school  scholars  in  their  last  year  might  be 
invited  occasionally  to  attend  lantern  and  other  lectures 
on  interesting  subjects  at  the  evening  school. 

(xi)  At  day  school  prize  distribution  meetings  the  atten- 
tion of  the  scholars  should  be  always  directed  to  the  evening 
classes.  The  managers  should  be  requested  to  co-operate 
on  these  and  other  points  concerning  the  continuance  of 
education  in  the  evenings. 

(xii)  The  head  teacher  of  the  day  school  should  forward 
a  list  of  scholars  once  a  month  to  the  responsible  teacher 
of  the  evening  class,  the  list  to  include  those  scholars 
who  will  be  14  years  of  age  during  the  following  month, 
and  others  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  head  teacher,  will 
be  leaving  about  that  time. 

(xiii)  The  head  teacher  and  the  responsible  teacher  of 
the  evening  school  to  which  the  day  school  is  contributory 
should  endeavour  to  interview  the  parent  during  the  last 
month  of  the  scholar's  attendance  at  the  day  school  with  a 
view  of  securing  the  parent's  co-operation  in  evening 
school  attendance. 

(xiv)  Exhibits  of  work  done  in  the  evening  school 
should  be  shown  in  a  case  placed  in  the  hall,  corridor,  or 
senior  class-room  of  the  day  school. 

(xv)  Each  ordinary  evening  school  should  be  so  func- 
tioned as  to  meet  generally  the  further  educational  needs 
of  the  great  majority  of  the  scholars  in  its  contributory  day 
schools. 

(xvi)  Monthly  popular  lectures  in  connection  with  each 
evening  school  or  group  of  schools  are  desirable,  to  which 
parents  and  day  school  scholars  might  be  admitted  on 
certain  conditions. 


214  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

(xvii)  There  should  be  perfect  co- operation  between  the 
head  teachers  of  the  day  schools  and  the  responsible 
teacher  of  the  evening  school  to  which  the  day  schools  are 
attached.  Occasional  conferences  between  these  officers  are 
desirable. 

(xviii)  The  responsible  teacher  should  notify  the  head 
teacher  of  the  day  school  of  a  scholar's  first  attendance  at 
the  evening  school. 

Some  Continuation  Schools  Abroad. — In  the  United 
States  manual  training  and  trade  schools  reach  a  high  state 
of  perfection.  The  close  relationship  between  the  technical 
institutes  and  the  industries,  and  the  determination  of 
employers  to  have  their  apprentices  thoroughly  educated, 
make  educational  and  industrial  progress  comparatively 
easy.  The  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  in  Philadelphia,1 
for  example,  "take  apprentices  at  17  for  four  years,  who 
must  have  had  '  a  good  common  school  education  ' ;  they 
are  required  to  attend  night  schools  during  the  first  three 
years  of  their  apprenticeship." 

An  apprentice  of  the  second  class  must  have  had  a  high 
school  training,  including  the  mathematical  courses  usual 
in  such  schools.  He  must  attend  night  schools  for  the 
study  of  mechanical  drawing  for  at  least  two  years  unless 
he  has  already  sufficiently  acquired  the  art. 

Free  evening  lectures  are  given  in  the  public  schools 
of  New  York.  These  are  largely  attended  by  adults. 
Discussion  is  encouraged,  and  the  free  libraries  of 
the  city  co-operate  to  lend  books  to  the  auditors  who 
desire  to  enter  more  deeply  into  the  subject  of  the 
lecture. 

In  many  parts  of  G-ermany2  attendance  at  the  evening 

1  Report  of  Mosely  Education  Commission. 

2  See  Special  Reports,  Vol.  9,  Continuation  Schools  of  Berlin  ; 
also  Board  of  Education's  Educational  Pamphlets,  No.   18.     "At 


CONTINUATION    SCHOOLS.  215 

school  is  compulsory  from  14  to  16,  or  14  to  18,  years  of 
age,  unless  the  student  has  already  reached  a  satisfactory 
standard  of  educational  attainment.  This  compulsion  is 
of  a  stern  type,  for  the  student  must  learn,  and  the  em- 
ployer is  forced  to  give  the  time  necessary  for  it.  From 
the  ordinary  evening  schools  of  Berlin  have  grown  such 
institutions  as  the  "  Handwerkerschulen,"  which,  as  the 
name  implies,  are  schools  for  apprentices  and  artisans. 
In  many  of  the  trade  schools  there  are  courses  of  in- 
struction extending  over  a  period  of  four  years.  These 
courses  are  so  arranged  that  attendance  at  the  lessons 
need  not  be  continuous  throughout  the  year.  An  artisan, 
for  example,  could  attend  during  the  winter  months  only, 
and  give  up  the  summer  months  to  the  practical  work  of 
earning  a  livelihood,  and  so  complete  the  full  course  of 
instruction  in  this  alternative  way.     The  ordinary  German 

Strassburg,  on  leaving  school  at  the  end  of  his  fourteenth  year,  a  boy 
must  at  once,  whether  he  has  already  found  work  or  not,  join  one 
of  the  following,  and  a  statement  to  that  effect  appears  on  his 
leaving  certificate  : — {a)  The  General  Continuation  Course  (for  un- 
skilled workers),  [b)  One  of  the  Technical  Courses  (gewerbliche). 
(c)  One  of  the  Courses  for  Building  or  other  Industries,  {d)  The 
Commercial  Course. " — Educational  Pamphlets,  No.  18. 

Also,  "as  the  time  for  his  leaving  the  day  school  draws  near,  the 
town  authorities  and  his  teachers  show  their  interest  in  the  boy's 
choice  of  a  calling.  The  parents  will  perhaps  have  been  invited  to 
an  informal  conference,  to  have  the  intention  and  procedure  of  tho 
Labour  Bureau  explained  to  them,  and  they  will  have  received  a 
pamphlet  informing  them  of  the  various  trades  and  employments  in 
the  district,  and  the  prospects  in  each.  No  pressure  is  exercised  on 
them  as  to  the  choice  of  an  occupation,  but  the  school  does  sufficient 
to  awaken  them  to  the  evil  of  letting  their  children  drift  into 
irregular  employment,  and  the  authority  of  the  schoolmaster  is 
exerted  to  insist  on  the  children  going  to  the  bureau  repeatedly  till 
they  have  found  a  post." — Educational  Pamphlets,  No.  18,  Compul- 
sory Continuation  Schools  in  Germany. 


216  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

evening  schools  are  much  the  same  as  those  in  the  large 
towns  of  the  north  of  England. 

Holland  shows  a  similar  enterprise  to  Germany  in  the 
establishment  of  trade  schools  with  day  and  evening  sec- 
tions, and  of  other  continuation  schools  of  a  commercial 
and  general  character. 


The  Ordinary  Elementary  Day  School. 

Teachers  Giving  Partial  Time  or  Visiting  Teachers. 

— Exigencies  of  school  life  sometimes  demand  the  employ- 
ment of  occasional  teachers  for  certain  subjects.  In  the 
case  of  a  mixed  school  presided  over  by  a  master  and  with- 
out the  permanent  aid  of  an  assistant  mistress,  a  woman 
must  be  employed  to  give  the  necessary  instruction  in 
needlework.  In  like  manner,  a  drill  instructor  is  some- 
times engaged  to  superintend  the  physical  side  of  the 
scholars'  training. 

Of  recent  years  there  has  been  a  tendency  towards 
specialisation  in  certain  subjects.  Visiting  teachers  have 
therefore  greatly  increased  in  number.  These  are  mostly 
employed  in  giving  instruction  in  science,  art,  and  modern 
languages,  their  work  being  supplemented  by  members  of 
the  ordinary  staff.  This  arrangement,  however,  cannot  be 
considered  satisfactory.  The  visiting  teacher  is  neces- 
sarily too  remote  to  be  effective.  It  would  be  far  better  if 
each  member  of  the  permanent  staff  specialised  in  one 
subject. 

Pupil  Teachers.1 — Pupil  teachers,  who  must  be  over 
16  and  not  over  18  years  of  age — with  exceptions  in  favour 

1  See  Schedule  II.  B,  Art.  11  (a),  Code  1910,  and  Regulations  for 
the  Preliminary  Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers,  Chaps. 
I.  to  V. 


PUPIL    TEACHERS.  217 

of  rural  districts — are  normally  recognised  for  a  period 
of  two  years.  Tiiey  must  be  (a)  trained  in  teaching  in 
a  public  elementary  school,  and  (b)  instructed  at  a 
secondary  school  or  elsewhere,  as  approved  by  the  Board  of 
Education.  They  must  have  one  whole  day  in  each  week 
"  free  from  employment  or  other  requirement."  Other- 
wise it  is  the  official  expectation  that  the  pupil  teacher's 
time  shall  be  fairly  equally  distributed  between  training 
in  teaching  and  instruction.  Arrangements  for  the  train- 
ing and  instruction  of  pupil  teachers  have  varied  so  much 
in  different  educational  areas  that  it  is  not  proposed  to 
summarise  them  here.  The  practice  in  large  towns  has 
generally  been,  however,  fairly  uniform,  the  pupil  teacher 
spending  one  half  of  the  week  in  school  and  the  other 
half  at  the  secondary  school  or  pupil  teachers'  centre, 
with  minor  holiday  intermissions.  In  lieu  of  this  plan, 
the  "  block  system,"  by  which  a  term  or  half -year  devoted 
wholly  to  training  in  school  is  alternated  with  a  corre- 
sponding period  given  up  entirely  to  academic  studies,  has 
been  introduced  in  some  educational  areas. 

But  whatever  system  is  adopted,  it  is  eminently  desirable 
that  theory  on  the  academic  side  should  fit  in  with  the  actual 
work  of  training  at  the  school. 

The  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  are  intended 
to  secure  for  the  pupil  teacher  a  more  complete  and  con- 
tinuous education,  and  to  make  the  period  of  service  in  an 
elementary  school  a  time  of  probation  and  training  rather 
than  of  too  early  practice  in  teaching. 

It  is  undesirable  for  pupil  teachers  to  be  held  entirely 
responsible  for  a  class.  The  staff  should  be  sufficient 
and  suitable  without  this  aid,  and  the  school  should,  of 
•course,  be  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  their  training. 
At  the  same  time  practice  in  teaching  is  essential.  This 
can  be  secured  by  a  systematised  course  of  criticism  lessons, 


218  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  by  allowing  the  pupil  teacher  to  have  charge  of  a  small 
portion  of  a  class  for  a  short  time  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  head  teacher  or  a  certificated  assistant. 

When  not  thus  engaged,  he  should  have  as  much 
variety  of  teaching  as  possible  with  other  classes,  the 
upper  sections  being  generally  excepted,  and  be  brought 
into  close  contact  with  school  routine.  Listening  atten- 
tively to  the  class  teachers  and  carefully  noting  their 
methods  is  a  valuable  exercise — a  foundation  on  which  to 
build  ;  but  this  type  of  exercise  must  have  strict  limitations 
put  upon  it.  Without  a  sense  of  increasing  responsibility 
and  growing  power  in  the  management  of  children  and  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  general  and  individual 
progress,  the  training  of  a  pupil  teacher  in  the  art  of 
teaching  cannot  become  a  reality.  A  properly  graduated 
course  of  school  training,  increasing  in  difficulty  and 
scope  as  the  articled  time  advances,  should  be  a  part 
of  the  working  scheme  of  every  school  having  pupil 
teachers  :  "  Registers l  showing  the  time  spent  by  each 
pupil  teacher  in  employment  or  training,"  and  full  re- 
cords of  its  nature,  must  be  kept  by  the  head  teacher  of 
the  school. 

Definite  times  should  be  assigned  for  observation  ar- 
ranged on  a  consecutive  basis.  All  lessons  thus  observed 
should  be  analysed  by  the  pupil  teacher;  and  in  this 
analysis  the  aim  of  the  lesson,  the  method  employed,  and 
any  other  material  points  should  be  indicated.  In  exam- 
ining this  report  of  the  pupil  teacher,  the  class  teacher 
should  see  that  the  relationship  between  the  different 
parts  of  the  lesson  is  appreciated — the  adaptation  of 
method  to  aim  in  its  application.  Practice  in  actual 
teaching  to  sections  of  a  class  or  to  a  whole  class,  in  the 

1  Schedule  II.  B.  (11).  See  also  under  "  Student  Teachers  "  sug- 
gestions for  the  distribution  of  time  in  school. 


STUDENT    TEACHEKS.  219 

form  either  of  a  criticism  lesson  founded  on  rough  notes, 
or  of  the  repetition  of  a  lesson  already  given  by  the  class 
teacher,  is,  of  course,  necessary  :  and  this  practice  should  as 
far  as  possible  represent  a  connected  series.  In  the  earliest 
stages  of  training  whole  lessons  should  not  be  given,  but 
only  parts,  the  class  teacher  coming  in,  at  an  appropriate 
time,  to  continue  the  teaching. 

Indeed  the  whole  scheme  of  work  for  the  pupil  teacher 
must  be  thoughtfully  designed  to  cover  the  full  course  of 
training.  The  parts  should  be  so  connected  that  each  will 
naturally  lead  to  the  other,  and  both  a  priori  and  in  their 
finality  reveal  an  organised  unity. 

Pupil  Teacherships  of  Handicraft  are  recognised  in  some 
educational  areas.  There  are  also  Domestic  Economy 
and  Art  Pupil  Teacherships. 

Student  Teachers.1 — These  may  form  part  of  the  staff 
subject  to  certain  provisions  imposed  by  the  Board  of 
Education.  Foremost  amongst  these  provisions  are:  (1)  The 
local  authority  must  put  into  operation  a  satisfactory 
scheme  for  the  supervision  of  student  teachers  and  their 
training  in  the  art  of  teaching.  (2)  Each  student  teacher,  if 
not  a  bursar,  must  be  over  17  years  of  age.  (3)  He  or  she 
will  be  generally  recognised  for  one  year,  but  this  recogni- 
tion may  be  extended  to  two  years.  (4)  Attendance  at 
school  may  not  exceed  eight  meetings  in  any  one  week. 
(5)  The  head  teacher  must  keep  registers  showing  the 
time  spent  in  training  and  "  full  records  of  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  employed."  (6)  He  or  she  must  have  passed 
the  Preliminary  Certificate  Examination  or  "  some  other 
examination  accepted  by  the  Board  as  a  qualification  for 
entrance  to  a  Training  College." 

1  Arts.  11  and  12,  Code  1910,  and  Chaps.  VI.  and  VII.,  Regula- 
tions for  the  Vreliminary  Education  of  Elementary  School  Teachers. 


A  criticism 
lesson  at  least 
once  a  week,  to 
be  followed  by 
advisory  re- 
marks of  the 
head  teacher 
on  method  and 
disciplinary 
effects. 


v.. 


220  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Distribution  of  time  spent  in  school  might  usefully  take 
the  following  form  for  a  year's  course — 

"  First  Term  : — Half  time  in  observation 
and  the  other  half  divided  equally 
between  practice  with  the  class 
teacher  and  independent !  practice, 
Second  Term  : — One-third  of  time  given 
to  each  of  the  following — observation, 
practice  with  the  class  teacher, 
independent  practice. 
Third  Term  : — One-fourth  of  time  to  ob- 
servation, half  time  to  independent 
practice,  one-fourth  to  practice  with 
class  teacher. 

On  the  academic  side,  student  teachers  must  attach 
themselves  to  a  training  college  or  kindred  institution 
that  becomes  responsible  for  the  direction  of  their  studies 
and  to  some  extent  for  the  supervision  of  their  training. 

It  is  a  fairly  general  practice  to  allow  the  student- 
teacher  to  work,  by  turns,  in  nearly  every  class.  Consider- 
ing the  short  period  of  training,  this  is  not  desirable. 
There  should  at  least  be  an  anchorage  class  in  charge  of 
one  of  the  most  capable  assistants,  where  the  student 
teacher  should  spend  about  one-half  to  three-fourths  of 
his  or  her  time,  the  remaining  time  being  devoted  to  other 
classes  and  to  the  acquirement  of  a  knowledge  of  school 
records  and  general  routine.  Under  other  arrangements 
than  these  the  work  becomes  too  diffused ;  and  accord- 
ingly impressions  cannot  be  deep  and  lasting,  nor  can  the 
training  be  really  effective. 

1  "  Independent "  is  not  necessarily  used  in  the  absolute  sense. 
It  refers  here  to  the  charge  of  a  complete  class  under  competent 
supervision,  which  may  or  may  not  be  operative,  or  to  the  charge 
of  a  section  of  a  class. 


TEACHERS.  221 

The  distribution  of  time l  over  the  various  phases  of 
class  life  suggested  above  is  intended  to  meet  all  ordinary 
cases.  Sometimes,  however,  a  student  teacher  shows  at 
once  a  natural  aptitude  for  teaching  and  an  exceptional 
power  of  control  over  children.  In  such  cases,  less  time 
should  be  given  to  observation  in  the  first  term,  and  more 
time  to  actual  working  practice. 

Absences  of  Teachers. — The  absences  of  teachers 
through  illness  and  other  transient  causes  are  generally 
disturbing  elements  in  the  life  of  a  school.  The  extent 
of  the  disturbance,  however,  depends  greatly  on  the 
numerical  and  qualitative  strength  of  the  staff.  The 
department  that  is  staffed  only  up  to  minimum  require- 
ments naturally  feels  these  disturbances  most;  whereas 
generous  staffing  arrangements  enable  the  head  teacher 
to  fill  up  the  gap  promptly.  If  the  head  teacher  is  not 
otherwise  tied  to  a  class  it  is  his  duty  to  fill  the  vacant 
position,  supposing  no  other  qualified  member  of  the  staff 
is  available. 

It,  however,  often  happens  that  the  hands  of  each  teacher 
are  otherwise  full ;  and  as  a  class  must  be  controlled  and 
taught,  it  becomes  necessary  to  devise  some  temporary 
expedient  for  meeting  the  emergency.  Such  expedients 
must,  of  course,  vary  according  to  circumstances.  In 
practice  they  often  involve  a  departure  from  the  time-table, 
which  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  All  departures  from 
the  time  table,  by  the  way,  should  be  logged  and  the  cir- 
cumstances stated.  It  goes  without  saying  that  the  wisest 
course  to  pursue  is  the  one  that  involves  the  least  deviation 
from  every-day  practice,  and  also  fairly  meets  the  needs  of 
the  teacherless  class. 

1  This  might  appty  equally  to  pupil  teachers,  with  slight  modifi- 
cations to  meet  individual  cases. 


222  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

This  is  generally  effected  by  an  alternation  of  private 
study  (or  any  quiet  individual  work  such  as  writing  a.nd 
drawing)  and  class  teaching  in  two  adjoining  classes,  the 
one  teacher,  with  such  minor  aids  as  are  ordinarily  available 
in  a  school,  distributing  oral  lessons  over  the  two  classes, 
and  also  guiding  private  effort  and  testing  its  results  as  far 
as  possible.  The  occasional  practice  of  putting  two  classes 
into  one  room  and  overcrowding  it,  must  be  condemned. 
When,  however,  a  commodious  room  is  available  into  which 
the  two  classes  can  be  conveniently  put,  oral  lessons  might 
be  given  to  the  combined  class  in  certain  subjects,  if  the 
attainments  of  scholars  are  not  widely  different ;  or,  as  in 
the  other  instance,  private  study  and  oral  lessons  might 
alternate. 

Other  devices  are  sometimes  practised,  under  stress  of 
circumstances,  not  always  in  conformity  with  the  letter  of 
official  regulations.  The  main  thing,  however,  is  the  spirit 
of  these  regulations,  which  should  be  scrupulously  observed. 
It  is  pleaded  in  these  cases  that  necessity  knows  no  law, 
and  that  an  unduly  severe  view  cannot  be  taken  of  an 
exceptional  position  of  a  temporary  character  that  has,  all 
things  considered,  been  met  in  a  reasonable  manner, 

Supply  Teachers. — The  inconveniences  caused  by  the 
absences  of  teachers  point  to  the  wisdom — when  there  is 
no  organised  system  of  "  supplies,"  prompt  to  fill  up 
vacancies,  especially  sudden  and  unexpected  ones — of 
giving  each  department  a  marginal  or  liberal  staff.  This 
is  apparently  done  to  a  large  extent  in  the  United  States. 
"It  is  universally  recognised  that  teachers  should  not 
be  actually  teaching  all  through  the  school  day  :  20  or  22 
periods  of  actual  teaching  out  of  30  seem  about  the  general 
rule."  l     Again,  Mr.  Gr.  Andrew,  in  his  Report  to  the  Scotch 

1  Mosely  Education  Commission  Report. — W.  G.  Fletcher. 


TEACHERS.  223 

Education  Department  on  the  Schools  of  Berlin  and 
Charlottenburg,  says,  "A  teacher  gives,  as  a  rule,  from  24 
to  28  hours'  instruction  in  a  week,  out  of  a  possible  32 
hours." 

Non-provided  schools  have  suffered  more  through  the 
absences  of  teachers  than  the  Council  schools,  because  the 
latter,  in  most  large  areas,  have  the  advantage  of  a  system 
of  "  supply  "  teachers.  But  now  that  both  Council  and 
non-provided  schools  are  mostly  under  the  direction  of 
the  same  local  authority,  which  is  either  directly  or 
ultimately  responsible  for  their  efficiency,  there  is  no  reason 
why  both  classes  of  schools  should  not  equally  profit  by 
an  organised  system  of  "supply"  teachers.  Indeed  this 
is  generally  so  now.  In  the  metropolitan  area  "  supplies" 
consist  of — 

(1)  "  Unattached  "  teachers,  practically  in  the  permanent 

service,  who  may  be  sent  to  any  school  within  the 
administrative  area  to  fill  a  temporary  vacancy, 
and  who  are  under  the  direct  control  of  the  central 
office. 

(2)  "  Supply  "  teachers  casually  employed  at  the  instance 

of  the  district  correspondent,  when  unattached 
teachers  are  not  available,  who  may  send  supplies 
to  any  school  within  his  jurisdiction  to  fill  occasional 
vacancies  of  a  temporary  character. 

The  Head  Teacher. — The  Head  Teacher  is  generally 
teacher,  director,  and  superintendent.  His  opportunities 
for  good  are  great  and  many.  His  responsibilities  are, 
therefore,  commensurate  therewith.  No  one  could  desire 
a  more  responsive  field  for  sowing  good  seed  than  that 
represented,  as  a  rule,  by  the  scholars  of  a  school.  The 
head  teacher's  influence  must  depend  primarily  on  his 
strength  of  character. 


224  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  order  that  the  sum  of  his  influences  may  be  great 
over  both  staff  and  pupils,  the  following  are  the  chief 
qualities  and  powers  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  possess  : 
(1)  lofty  sense  of  duty ;  (2)  broad  sympathy — not  willingly 
"  to  brush  the  down  from  a  butterfly's  wing  "  ;  (3)  sound 
judgment ;  (4)  power  of  insight  into  character ;  (5)  love 
of  his  work ;  (6)  originality  or  initiative,  and  belief  in 
"the  continual  law  of  progress";  (7)  self-control;  (8) 
organising  power;  (9)  firmness;  (10)  persuasive  powers 
of  speech ;  (11)  general  purity  of  character ;  and 
(12)  ability  to  breathe  the  spirit  of  it  into  the  school. 
Of  course  this  array  of  qualities  is  somewhat  ideal.  A 
detailed  knowledge  of  school  work  is  presumed. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  every  head  teacher 
worthy  of  the  name  is  generally  regarded  by  his  scholars" 
as  an  ideal  personality  possessing  extraordinary  know- 
ledge, and  gifted,  too,  beyond  the  run  of  ordinary  mortals. 
Honour,  justice,  truth  are  presumed  to  govern  all  his 
actions.  This  general  and  illimitable  faith,  combined  with 
the  reality  of  his  own  powers,  are  forces  which  he  can  direct 
to  perfect  the  organisation  and  control  of  his  school.  The 
greatest  care  and  circumspection  are  of  course  necessary  if 
the  scholars'  ideal  is  to  remain  unsullied  and  unshattered 
amidst  the  daily  provocations  to  which  he  is  subjected. 
Self- watchfulness  ought  to  be  his  constant  sentinel. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  head  teacher  are  included  in 
(1)  organisation,  (2)  supervision,  (3)  teaching,  and  (4) 
examination  ;  or,  to  use  official  phraseology,  "  the  general 
control  and  supervision  of  the  instruction  and  discipline." 
The  special  aim  of  the  school,  its  size,  the  number  and 
capabilities  of  the  assistant  teachers,  the  character  of  the 
building  are  factors  in  determining  a  wise  distribution  of 
time  over  these  various  parts  of  a  head  teacher's  work. 

The  salient  features  of  organisation  are  too  evident  to 


THE    HEAD    TEACHER.  225 

be  indicated  in  this  connection ;  but  two  or  three  points 
are  worthy  of  note  here.  Although  the  word  "  standard  " 
has  been  deleted  from  the  Code  so  far  as  it  applies  to 
classification,  the  standards  are  still  retained  in  name  and 
scope  as  standards  of  examination  for  certificates  of  pro- 
ficiency. In  practice,  however,  they  are  still  used  to  define 
courses  of  instruction  applicable  to  classes,  though  there 
is  much  evidence  of  freedom  from  the  trammels  they 
originally  imposed.  The  liberty  of  unrestricted  classifica- 
tion— unrestricted,  that  is,  within  reasonable  limits — has 
been  utilised  by  the  adoption,  in  suitable  cases,  of  interme- 
diate courses  between  one  standard  and  another,  and  by 
other  departures  from  the  old  lines,  making  for  greater 
changes  still.  But  in  this  respect  each  school  must 
discover  for  itself  what  courses  are  best  suited  for  its  own 
development,  as  local  circumstances  vary  so  greatly. 

Sometimes  a  classification  is  adopted  based  on  attain- 
ments and  aptitudes  of  scholars  in  one  or  more  subjects, 
as  distinguished  from  their  general  attainments  in  all 
subjects — this  latter  being  the  basis  on  which  classes  are 
usually  organised.  For  example,  the  school  being  arranged 
in  classes  according  to  general  attainments,  a  scholar  in, 
say,  Standard  IV.  may  possess  exceptional  talent  in  draw- 
ing, and  have  but  poor  ability  in  number.  The  head 
teacher  can  then,  if  he  pleases,  allow  this  scholar  to  receive 
instruction  in  all  other  subjects  in  Standard  IV.  and 
place  him  for  drawing  in  Standard  VI.  and  for  arith- 
metic in  Standard  II.  Indeed  the  whole  school  may  be 
organised  on  this  plan.  Time-table  difficulties,  however, 
arise  in  this  connection. 

It  is  generally  desirable,  for  example,  to  have  longer 

lessons   in  the   upper  than  in   the  lower  school ;  but   if 

the  above  principle  were  largely  or  wholly  applied,  it  would 

be  necessary  to  have  most,  if  not  all,  lessons  commencing 

s.  o.  17 


226  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  ending  at  the  same  time.  In  practice,  therefore,  it  is 
found  not  to  work  well,  as  a  rule,  in  an  elementary  school, 
if  put  extensively  into  operation.  Probably  the  best 
application  of  this  principle  of  cross  classification — as  it 
may  be  called — is  a  limited  one  founded  on  the  few  cases 
of  exceptional  ability  in  a  certain  direction  on  the  one 
hand,  and  one-sided  dulness  on  the  other,  which  are 
invariably  present  in  every  school. 

Departmental  teaching,  referred  to  elsewhere,  founded  on 
the  apparently  logical  basis  of  subjects  rather  than  classes, 
is  somewhat  allied  to  this  system  of  cross  classification, 
inasmuch  as  both  are  founded  on  subjects :  in  the  former 
case  the  subject  is  primarily  associated  with  the  teacher, 
and  in  the  latter  case  with  the  scholar. 

Supervision  cannot,  of  course,  be  complete,  and  must 
indeed  be  defective,  when  the  head  teacher  is  solely  re- 
sponsible for  a  class.  The  degree,  therefore,  with  which 
this  can  be  carried  out  must  depend  on  the  amount  of 
school  freedom  he  possesses.  An  able  and  liberal  assistant 
staff  will  confer  all  the  liberty  he  can  reasonably  desire. 
It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  allow  even  supervision  to  be 
too  engrossing — to  be  a  gulf  swallowing  up  most  of  the 
time — for  colleagues  should  be  trusted  until  they  are 
found  wanting,  and  supervision  merely  involves  a  general, 
and  only  occasionally  a  particular,  watchfulness  over  the 
application  of  syllabuses,  methods  of  instructions,  home 
lessons,  discipline,  and  degree  of  observance  of  organised 
plans  generally. 

It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  for  any  head  teacher, 
possessing  firmness  of  decision  and  ordinary  force  of 
character,  to  repeat  his  requests  twice,  before  they  are 
accepted  and  applied  by  every  member  of  the  staff. 
Besides,  excessive  supervision  is  not  conducive  to  that 
good  relationship  between  hea/1  and  assistants  which  ought 


THE    HEAD    TEACHER.  227 

to  characterise  every  school.  Young  and  inexperienced 
assistant  masters  and  mistresses,  of  course,  need  more 
supervision  and  guidance  than  others. 

And  under  direction  and  supervision  comes  a  possible 
phase  of  the  head  teacher's  work,  which,  on  account  of 
its  limited  field,  is  liable  to  receive  at  his  hands  less  atten- 
tion than  it  deserves,  viz.  the  training  of  pupil  and  student 
teachers,  who  are  to  fall  into  the  professional  ranks  later, 
and  to  take  the  heavy  responsibilities  which  such  action 
involves.  The  standard  of  training  and  example  that  is 
set  before  them  will,  if  high,  live  in  achievement  in  future 
generations,  and  will  bring  home  to  the  giver,  in  its  own 
time,  a  beautiful  satisfaction ;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  perfunctory  or  low,  or  indifferent,  they  may  fail  in  their 
future  work,  and  will  certainly  enter  the  battle  with  a 
broken  lance.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  head  teacher's 
general  effectiveness  can  be  accurately  measured  by  the 
degree  of  success  achieved  in  the  training  of  would-be  and 
young  teachers. 

One  of  the  most  important  functions  that  a  head  teacher 
is  called  upon  to  discharge  is  that  which  refers  to  actual 
teaching.  A  certain  amount  of  time  per  week,  about  ten 
or  twelve  hours,  ought,  as  far  as  possible,  regularly  to  be 
given  to  this  work.  It  is  inadvisable  for  the  head  teacher 
to  confine  his  attentions  in  this  respect  to  one  or  even  two 
classes — assuming  that  there  are  many  classes — but  to 
distribute  his  teaching  over  the  whole  school  from  time  to 
time,  giving  weak  spots  and  the  upper  classes,  particularly 
the  first  class,  a  little  more  of  his  individuality  and  power 
than  the  others.  The  intimate  relationship  between  the 
head  and  the  scholars  established  by  this  direct  teaching 
puts  him  into  more  sensitive  communication  with  the 
pulse  of  the  school.  He  can  better  estimate  by  this  means 
the  value  of  the  training  which  the  pupils  are  receiving, 


228  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

than  by  mere  examination,  which,  after  all,  only  brings  out 
the  less  important  side  of  a  good  education.  These  lessons, 
too,  should  serve  as  models  in  method,  breadth  of  view, 
and  fulness  of  knowledge  for  the  guidance  and  example  of 
the  assistant  staff,  apart  from  their  value  in  extending  and 
colouring  the  horizon  of  the  scholars. 

In  Germany,  the  United  States,  and  Canada  it  is  a 
general  practice  for  head  teachers,  even  of  very  large 
schools,  to  give  about  one- third  of  their  time  to  actual 
class  teaching.  "  The  Eektor  (head  teacher),  apart  from 
his  general  supervision  of  the  school,  performs  usually 
twelve  hours'  teaching  a  week.  He  does  not  always  teach 
either  the  same  subject  or  the  same  class,  but  varies  his 
work  every  school  semester."1 

School  Examinations.  —  Examination,  essential  for 
obtaining  exact  information  as  to  the  progress  on  some, 
but  not  all,  important  points,  should  be  systematised. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  divide  the  year  into  two  or  three 
terms  and  give  an  examination  towards  the  close  of  each, 
based,  of  course,  on  the  work  prescribed.  Occasional  tests 
are  also  advisable  in  certain  subjects,  especially  if  there  is 
a  weak  spot  in  the  teaching  staff. 

The  regular  term  examinations2  assume  individual  form 
in  the  three  R's,  and  class  form,  mostly,  in  the  other  sub- 
jects, except  in  the  upper  classes,  where  it  is  generally 

1  Report  of  Mr.  G.  Andrew  to  the  Scotch  Education  Department 
on  the  Primary  Schools  of  Berlin  and  Charlottenburg,  1904. 

In  Kansas  City  ' '  the  head  teacher  is  usually  responsible  for  a  class, 
and  thus  exercises  relatively  little  supervision  over  the  work  of  a 
school." — Report  of  the  Rev.  A.  W.  Jephson,  issued  by  the  late 
School  Board  for  London,  1904. 

2  These  are  in  accordance  with  the  Revised  Instructions  of  1903  to 
H.M.  Inspectors.  See  (d)  Examination  of  School  Work,  Prefatory 
Memorandum,  Code  1904,  &±d  also  Art.  22. 


EXAMINATIONS.  229 

desirable  to  have  written  tests  in  most,  if  not  in  all,  subjects. 
Individual  viva  voce  examinations  are,  too,  very  valuable, 
when  they  can  be  carried  out  under  proper  conditions. 

The  possibility  of  holding  these  examinations  is  hardly 
worthy  of  discussion,  provided  circumstances  are  normal. 
In  a  liberally  staffed  school  no  difficulties  need  arise ;  but 
in  schools  where  the  head  teacher  is  responsible  for  a  class, 
a  temporary  interchange  of  classes  between  the  head  and 
the  assistant  whose  class  is  to  be  examined  has  some 
weak  points,  though  it  is  generally  found  to  work  satis- 
factorily. 

In  all  these  examinations !  it  is  most  important  that  the 
head  teacher  (1)  should  set  the  tests  and  questions  himself : 
in   some  cases,   particularly  when  the  class  teacher  is  a 
specialist  in  a  certain  subject,  it  is  desirable  either  for  the 
head  teacher  to  consult  him  before  finally  deciding  on  the 
questions,  or  to  allow  him  to  draw  up  the  questions — this 
is  preferable — and  for  the  head  to  approve  their  ultimate 
form;  (2)  should  be  careful  that  they  are  reasonable  tests, 
having  regard  to  the  courses  prescribed,  the  period  of  the 
year,  and  the  attainments  of  the  scholars  at  its  commence- 
ment ;     (3)    should  personally    and   strictly    supervise   the 
examination  ;  (4)  should  as  far  as  possible  examine  all  the 
papers  himself :  this  will  give  him  a  knowledge  of   the 
state  of  things  which  he  could  not  otherwise  possess  ;   (5) 
should  allow  each  scholar  to  see  his  paper  after  correction, 
so  that  errors  may  be  known  and  right  ideas  substituted ; 
(6)  should  record  the  degree  of  proficiency  by  a  mark  or 
symbol,   in  a  schedule   or  book   kept   for  that   purpose, 
in  the  case  of  all  individual  tests,  and  a  general  assess- 

1  It  is  extremely  important  that  the  courses  of  instruction  in 
previous  years  or  terms  should  not  be  forgotten.  If,  for  example, 
a  child  is  working  in  Standard  V.,  some  questions  should  be  given 
bearing  on  the  work  already  done  in  the  lower  standards. 


230  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

merit  and  criticism  on  all  subjects  ;  (7)  should  see  that 
his  standard  of  desirable  attainments  is  a  reasonably  high 
one — this  is,  to  some  extent,  governed  by  (2) ;  and  (8) 
take  immediate  steps  to  remove  or  remedy  any  glaring  class 
or  individual  deficiencies  and  weaknesses  revealed  by  the 
examination. 

Above  all,  the  head  teacher  must  bear  in  mind  the  peculiar 
position  in  which  he  is  placed  by  these  examinations — 
called  upon  to  judge  the  work  for  which  he  is  ultimately 
responsible  and  to  record  the  judgment  in  writing.  It  is 
therefore  a  position  of  great  trust,  and  one  that  deserves 
to  be  met  by  corresponding  sincerity  and  candour.  The 
presence  therefore  in  the  head  teacher's  mind  of  the  true 
spirit  of  justice  and  a  complete  absence  of  self-interest 
ought  to  direct  him  through  every  stage  of  the  examination, 
and  companion  him  in  assessing  the  results  and  in  recording 
his  criticisms,  which,  needless  to  say,  should  be  fearless 
and  impersonal.  In  other  words,  he  ought  to  weigh  the 
results  and  test  their  educational  value  like  a  fair-minded 
expert  estimating  the  work  of  an  unknown  person.  Ultra 
sensitiveness  of  the  staff,  or  any  part  of  it,  to  adverse 
criticism  of  its  work  should  not  be  considered.  There  is, 
however,  a  gentle  and  a  rough  way  of  telling  the  truth. 
The  wise  head  teacher  will  know  which  to  choose. 

A  generous  or  over  estimate  of  the  value  of  the  work 
accomplished  will  defeat  the  object  which  prompted  such 
folly  ;  while  any  suppression  or  covering  of  ngly  truths 
must  prove  the  sowing  of  "  dragon's  teeth,"  the  self- 
gathering  harvest  of  which  must  inevitably  come  later. 
The  welfare  of  the  school  and  the  interests  of  the  whole 
staff  are  best  served  in  discovering  the  truth  and  telling  it 
in  a  plain  way. 

Curriculum,  Syllabus,  and  Time  Table. — In  determining 
each  of  these,  due  consideration  should  be  given  to  (1)  the 


CURRICULUM,    ETC  23l 

Oode,1  the  spirit  of  which  will  be  found  to  be  a  valuable 
guide.  Certain  subjects  named  therein  are,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  obligatory,  though  reasonable  latitude  is 
allowed  to  meet  exceptional  cases.  The  Herbartian  prin- 
ciple2 of  possible  unification  of  subjects  is  recognised. 
Froebel's  insistence  upon  practical  work  and  the  need  of 
adjusting  instruction  to  environment  also  comes  in  for 
broad  and  desirable  recognition.  (2)  The  class  of  children, 
their  sex,  ages,  and  attainments.  (3)  The  quality  of  the 
staff.  (4)  Building  and  equipment.  (5)  Times  of 
meeting.  (6)  Local  circumstances  generally.  In  agri- 
cultural districts,  for  example,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
elementary  principles  of  agriculture  and  horticulture 
should  be  taught.  There  is,  too,  in  this  instance,  a  wide 
field  for  Nature  study.  In  the  French  and  German 
country  schools  these  subjects  receive  generally  a  con- 
spicuous share  of  attention.3 

But,  apart  from  local  circumstances,  there  are  certain 
subjects  whose  influence  upon  the  scholars'  lives,  after  the 
school  career  has  ended,  cannot  fail  to  be  great  and  bene- 
ficial. Prominently  among  these  stand  English  literature 
and  Civics,  both  of  which  occupy  an  important  place  in 
the  curricula  of  American  schools.4  A  further  point  to 
consider  is  the  desirability  of  making  the  instruction  in 
all  subjects,  as  far  as  possible,  practical — manual  dexterity 
having  an  important  place.  "  The  School  of  Education  ' 
at  Chicago,  formerly  presided  over  by  Dr.  Dewey,  is  an 


1  See  Arts.  1  to  7,  Code  1910. 

2  That  subjects  of  instruction  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  so  con- 
nected and  associated  with  one  another  that  the  child's  ideas  should 
be  bound  together  in  circles  of  thought. 

3  See  Special  Reports  (Mr.  Sadler's),  Vols.  7  and  9. 
*  See  Reports  of  the  Mosely  Educatiun  Commission. 


232  SCHOOL     ORGANISATION. 

experiment  on  these  lines.1  The  theory  of  to-day  should 
be  translated  into  practice  on  the  morrow :  and  if  the  child 
can  discover  the  application  for  himself,  so  much  the  better. 
All  the  great  educational  theorists  from  Bacon  to  Spencer 
may  be  said  substantially  to  have  promulgated  this  view.2 
The  "  Real  Schools "  of  Germany  are  partially  founded 
upon  it. 

Syllabus. — Immediately  the  subjects  of  instruction  and 
their  modes  of  presentation  have  been  generally  deter- 
mined, the  syllabus  for  each  branch  of  the  curriculum 
should  be  carefully  drawn  up  as  an  organic  whole.  That 
is  to  say,  the  organiser  must  have  in  view  not  only  one 
term  or  one  year's  course  of  instruction,  but  the  whole 
range  of  work  designed  for  the  pupil  during  his  school  life. 
In  other  words,  the  syllabus  in  design  should  be  a  static 
unity ;  and,  in  application,  a  dynamic  unity.  The  subjects 
should  therefore,  as  far  as  possible,  be  correlated  with  one 
another,  and  adjusted  to  the  character  of  the  environ- 
ment and  the  general  requirements  of  the  scholars.  Once 
framed,  the  syllabus  should  not  be  regarded  as  necessarily 
permanent  in  form,  nor  need  the  organiser  wait  till  the 
close  of  the  year  to  effect  revision3  if  that  is  considered 
immediately  desirable,  or  imperative.  Changes  of  a  minor 
character  may  be  advisable  from  time  to  time,  rendered  ne- 
cessary by  altered  conditions,  or  judged  desirable  through  a 
wider  experience  or  the  acquisition  of  some  special  skill  or 
knowledge.  Visits  and  excursions4  allowed  by  the  Code 
should  be  projected — they  can  be  modified  later  if  necessary 
— as  soon  as  a  term's  course  has  been  definitely  settled. 

1  See  Report  of  the  Mosely  Education  Commission,  pp.  203  and  356. 

2  "The  school  must  encourage  to  the  utmost  the  children's 
natural  activities  of  hand  and  eye  by  suitable  forms  of  practical 
work  and  manual  instruction." — Introduction  to  Code  1910. 

3  Art.  3  (a).  4  Art.  44  (/>). 


CHAPTER   V. 


"I  rose  from  my  knees.  .  .  .  The  world  reappeared. 

"I  roused  myself,  drew  aside  the  silk  that  covered  my  eyes,  and 
plunged  my  bare  face  into  the  light." — Kinglake's  Eothen. 

"  All  the  really  important  things  of  life  must  of  necessity  be  self- 
taught." — The  Disadvantages  of  Education,  Edward  A.  Parry. 


TIME-TABLES. 

With  Special  Reference  to  the  Ordinary 

Graded  School. 

Ceteris  paribus,  the  easy  working  of  a  school  will  depend 
a  great  deal  on  the  suitability  of  the  Time  Table,  which 
must  always  be  approved  by  the  local  education  authority 
and  H.M.  Inspector.  In  the  planning  of  it  skill,  intimate 
knowledge,  and  forethought  are  necessary  if  it  is  to  work 
with  the  minimum  of  friction,  and  thus  economise  both 
time  and  energy.  The  Time  Table  is  the  second  school 
clock,  on  the  face  of  which  are  shown  at  intervals  the  hour 
of  the  day,  the  kind  of  lesson  in  progress  in  every  class, 
the  recreation  interval,  and  the  moments  for  assembly  and 
dismissal.  Its  motive  power  is  the  spirit  of  the  organiser 
pervading  every  part  of  the  building,  working  silently  and 
governing  all  the  material  changes  that  are  necessary  to  a 
school's  daily  life. 

In  framing  or  planning  the  Time  Table  the  following 
additional  considerations  to  those  already  named  in  rela- 
tion to  curricula  should  have  their  due  weight : — 

(1)  The  desirable  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  each 
subject  in  the  curriculum. 

(2)  The  desirable  length  of  each  lesson,  having  regard 
to  (a)  the  comparative  importance  and  difficulty  of  the 

233 


234 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


subject,  (b)  whether  the  lesson  is  theoretical  or  practical, 
(c)  the  age  and  powers  of  the  scholars.  This  has  been 
already  mentioned,  but  it  is  so  important  that  attention 
is  called  to  it  again. 

(3)  The  proper  distribution  of  the  lessons  in  relation  to 
(a)  morning  or  afternoon,  or  early  and  late  parts  of 
these  sessions x ;  (5)  the  character  of  the  subject — whether 
it  is  chiefly  mental  or  chiefly  mechanical  in  its  demands ; 
(c)  the  staff — the  strain  on  a  teacher  being  great  if  two  or 
three  oral  lessons  succeed  one  another;  (d)  the  internal 
structure  of  the  building.  This  point  becomes  accentuated 
if  more  than  one  teacher  be  working  independently  in  the 
same  room.  Quiet  lessons  should  alternate  with  aggres- 
sive or  noisy  ones  in  the  case  of  adjoining  classes. 

Concerning  (1)  the  following  represents  approximately 
the  distribution  of  time  over  the  various  subjects  of  in- 
struction 2 : — 


Humanistic  Subjects. 


Bible  Instruc- 
tion 

History 

Singing 

Drawing  and 
Modelling 

English 


h,  m. 

3  20 
1     0 

1  0 

2  0 

8  15 

15  35 


Science  and  Nature 
Study. 


Geography  ... 
Nature  Study 

or  S  ience 
Mathematics 


h. 
1 

1 
4 


m. 

0 

20 
0 


6  20 


Physical  Culture  and 
Manual  Training. 


Physical  Ex- 
ercises and 
Games 

[Recreation 
Intervals] 

Manual  Train- 
ing (Boys) 
or  Domestic 
Training  for 
Girls 


h.  m. 


1     0 


2    5 


2  30 
5  35 


These  make  in  all  27 J  hours. 

1  See  Child  Study  Reports  in  connection  with  the  Chicago  Public 
Schools. 

2  See  Report  of  the  English  Conference,  1909,  issued  by  the  L.C.C. 


TIME-TABLES.  235 

It  is  considered  by  some  educationists  that  the  "  time 
usually  allotted  to  handicraft  and  mathematics  might,  by 
a  closer  correlation  of  geometry  with  woodwork  or  metal 
work,  be  more  economically  used," l  and  thus  set  free  time 
that  could  be  devoted  to  English  or  any  other  subject. 

The  time  that  should  be  devoted  to  English  has  been 
recently  under  consideration  by  a  body  of  experts,1  and 
their  recommendation  is — 


Time  per 

Week. 

Age  of  Children. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

7-  9  years. 

10  hours. 

11  hours 

i* 

9-11  '    „ 

10      „ 

11 

»> 

11-14      „ 

9      „ 

10 

>> 

The  hours  to  be  divided  thus  for  boys- 

Age  7-9. 

Age  9-11. 

Age  11-14. 

Phonetics 

50  m. 

30  m. 

— 

Reading 

4h. 

3h. 

1  h.  30  m. 

Writing  (mechanical) 

1  h.  30  m. 

1  h. 

30  m. 

Spelling  and  Dictation 

1  h.  10  m. 

1  h. 

1  h. 

Grammar 

— 

30  m. 

1  h. 

Composition  (oral  and  written)    1  h.  30  m. 

2h. 

2h. 

(mainly  oral) 

Literature  (incl.  Recitation) 

1  h. 

2h. 

3h. 

10  h.  10  h.  9  h. 

The  extra  hour  for  girls  is  to  be  "  divided  between  grammar, 
literature,  and  the  historical  study  of  words." 

Of  course  this  additional  time  suggested  for  English — 
eminently  desirable  as  it  is,  especially  the  phonetic  train- 
ing— must  involve  the  curtailment  of  the  time  devoted  to 
one  or  more  other  subjects.  Speaking  generally,  far  too 
much  time  is  devoted  to  arithmetic  in  the  lower  classes ; 
two  hours  a  week  for  the  two  lowest  classes  are  ample, 
and  three  hours  should  suffice  for  the  next  two  grades 
above.    The  time  thus  gained  should  be  devoted  to  English. 

1  See  Report  of  the  English  Conference,  1909,  issued  by  the  L.C.C. 


236  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

If  a  modern  language  is  taken,  three  hours  a  week 
should  be  devoted  to  it  in  the  upper  school. 

With  regard  to  (2),  the  length  of  the  lessons  should 
vary  in  the  infant  school  from  15  to  25  minutes,  according 
to  the  ao:es  of  the  scholars. 

In  senior  departments  a  line  must  be  drawn  between 
the  upper  and  lower  classes  for  this  purpose.  In  the 
lower  school  lessons  should  not,  as  a  rule,  exceed  half-an- 
hour  in  duration,  except  in  needlework.  In  the  upper 
school  lessons  might  reasonably  range  from  30  to  45  or 
50  minutes.  Certain  exceptions,  however,  must  be  made 
in  favour  of  the  following  subjects  : — 

(i)  Physical  Exercises. — Five  minutes'  smart  drill  each 
morning  and  afternoon  during  four  days  of  the  week,  and 
one  lesson  of  20  minutes  on  the  remaining  day ;  the  in- 
structor to  give  during  the  longer  lesson  special  attention 
to  posture,  and  position  of  the  arms,  hands,  legs,  and  head. 

(ii)  Needlework — 1  hour. 

(iii)  Lessons  in  laboratory  or  a  practical  science  room — 
1  hour  at  least. 

(iv)  Handicraft  for  boys ;  cookery,  laundry,  house- 
wifery for  girls — generally  2  hours  should  be  the  mini- 
mum; but  where  slum  localities  exist  and  the  physique 
and  staying  power  of  the  lads  are  considerably  below  the 
average,  it  is  desirable  to  limit  the  manual  training  lessons 
to  l£  or  1|  hours. 

(v)  Handwork  generally,  e.g.  paper-cutting,  modelling, 
etc. 

In  regard  to  3  (a)  and  (b)  it  is  an  accepted  view  that 
mental  power  wanes  under  the  influence  of  strain  or 
fatigue.  The  morning  therefore  is  better  than  the  after- 
noon, and  the  earlier  part  of  these  sessions  is  better  than 
the  later  parts,  for  subjects  that  especially  demand  mental 
vigour.    Mechanical  subjects  such  as  writing  (mechanical), 


TIME-TABLES.  237 

drawing,  etc.,  are  therefore  usually  taught  in  the  after- 
noon "  Extreme  fatigue  lowers  the  memory  power."1 
Points  (c)  and  (d)  have  been  previously  considered. 

The  curriculum,  syllabus,  and  time-table  having  been 
respectively  settled  and  arranged  on  a  fitting  basis, 
teachers  should  remember  that  the  mere  letter  of  these 
will  breed  dead  monotony,  but  that  the  spirit  will  con- 
fer life.  They  should  further  bear  in  mind,  with  regard 
to  the  scholars,  this  imperative  dictum,  "  With  all  thy 
getting,  get  understanding."  Professor  Armstrong  in 
an  address  before  the  British  Association  at  Belfast  in 
1902  said  substantially  the  same  thing :  "  We  recognise 
the  3  R's  in  primary  education,  but  there  is  need  for 
4  B's,  the  fourth  being  the  development  of  reasoning 
power  in  the  scholar."2 

The  time-tables  submitted  below,  mostly  as  abstracts,  are 
in  actual  use  in  schools  of  high  repute.  Notes  are  made 
in  connection  with  these  tables  if  they  are  considered 
capable  of  improvement,  having  regard  to  local  condi- 
tions. With  slight  modifications  to  meet  local  circum- 
stances, they  should  serve  the  purpose  of  any  ordinary 
elementary  school.  With  the  aid  of  the  points  recom- 
mended for  the  guidance  of  those  planning  time-tables, 
the  abstracts  should  enable  anyone  to  draw  up  a  satisfac- 
tory working  arrangement. 

The  following  extract  from  the  Elementary  Education 
Act  1870  [section  7  (2)]  should  be  carefully  noted: — 

"  The  time  or  times  during  which  any  religious  observ- 
ance is  practised,  or  instruction  in  religious  subjects  is 
given  at  any  meeting  of  the  school,  shall  be  either  at  the 

1  See  Child  Study  Reports  in  connection  with  the  Chicago  Public 
Schools. 

2  See  Preface  to  the  Mosely  Education  Commission  Reports, 
1904. 


238  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

beginning  or  at  the  end,  or  at  the  beginning  and  the  end, 
of  such  meeting,  and  shall  be  inserted  in  a  time-table  to 
be  approved  by  the  Education  Department  [now  Board  of 
Education]  and  to  be  kept  permanently  and  conspicuously 
affixed  in  every  schoolroom :  and  any  scholar  may  be  with- 
drawn from  such  observance  or  instruction  without  forfeit- 
ing any  of  the  other  benefits  of  the  school." 

Further,  in  determining  what  shall  be  the  curriculum 
and  time-table,  the  quantity  of  work  to  be  accomplished 
should  only  be  considered  in  relation  to  its  quality.  In 
other  words,  the  organiser  should  ask  himself  not  how 
much  the  scholars  can  store  in  their  memories,  but  how 
much  they  can  really  assimilate  and  transform  into  living 
power.  "  The  creation  of  a  right  taste  ;  occupation  of  the 
hands  and  minds  of  children  in  useful  wavs  which  stimu- 
late  to  industry  or  to  directions  which  appeal  to  their  love 
of  beauty  or  of  use;  the  development  of  the  sense  of 
wonder  at,  and  sympathy  with,  nature, — a  first  ingredient 
of  worship ;  the  encouragement  of  reverence  for  the 
beautiful,  the  good,  the  true, — a  natural  basis  for  re- 
ligion ;  these  are  some  of  the  ends  which  are  kept  in  view 
when  choice  has  to  be  made  of  subjects  to  companion  the 
three  R's  in  the  school  courses."1 

And  again,  in  regard  to  limitations  of  the  curriculum : 
"  You  might  read  all  the  books  in  the  British  Museum  .  .  . 
and  remain  an  utterly  illiterate,  uneducated  person  ■  but  if 
you  read  ten  pages  of  a  good  book,  letter  by  letter,  that  is 
to  say  with  real  accuracy,  you  are  for  ever  more,  in  some 
measure,  an  educated  person.  The  entire  difference  be- 
tween education  and  non-education  (as  regards  the  merely 
intellectual  part  of  it)  consists  in  this  accuracy."2 

1  Mr.  H.  T.  Mark  on  "Moral  Education  in  American  Schools." — 
Special  Reports,  Vol.  10. 

2  Ruskin,  Sesame  and  Lilies. 


TIME-TABLES. 


239 


TIME-TABLE   OF   INFANT   SCHOOL. 
Time  in  Minutes  for  each  Subject  per  Week. 


Subject. 

Time  in  each   Grade. 

A. 

B. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

St.  I. 

St.  I. 

III. 

II. 

I. 

I. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

Min. 

English — 

Composition  (W. ' 
(oral) 

} 

40 

45 

70 

105 

70 

60 

Reading 

Word  Building 

) 

125 
65 

145 
65 

1401 
40  j 

165 

145 

125 

Recitation 

30 

40 

50 

45 

45 

45 

Stories    

15 

15 

25 

20 

25 

15 

Writing 

100 

105 

110 

100 

100 

90 

Number      

140 

125 

— 

— ■ 

— 

— 

Drawing     

70 

70 

95 

105 

120 

120 

Object  Lessons  ... 

60 

60 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Nature  Study    ... 

100 

100 

100 

100 

80 

60 

Physical  Exercises 

100 

75 

100 

75 

100 

100 

Kindergarten  and 
Brush  work 

1 

140 

140 

165 

180 

215 

275 

Geography 

20 

20 

— 

— 

— 

— 

History  (Stories) 

. . . 

20 

20 

Singing       

75 

75 

80 

80 

75 

85 

Scripture    

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Recreation 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Registration,  etc. 

... 

150 

150 
1500 

150 

150 

150 

150 

Total     ... 

... 

1500 

1500 

1500 

1500 

1500 

N.B. — There  are  no  formal  lessons  in  Number  below  St.  I.  Number  is  dealt 
with  incidentally,  however,  mainly  through  the  agency  of  games. 

Physical  Exercises  take  the  form  mostly  of  games. 

Actual  registration  does  not  occupy  150  minutes  per  week,  though  so 
expressed  on  the  time-table. 


240 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


ANALYSIS   OF   TIME-TABLE   (INFANT   SCHOOL). 


English,  including 

(1)  Reading  and 

Preparation 
(Language) 

(2)  Recitation 

(3)  Stories 

(4)  Oral  comp. 

X umber  ... 
Mental ... 

Writing,  including 
Printing  and 
Drawing  in 
Lower  Grades 
Preparation  for 
Dictation 

Conversational 
Lessons 

Physical  Exercises 
and  Games  . . . 

Singing    ... 

Educ.  Handwm^k, 
inc.     Drawing 

Scripture,  includ- 
ing Prayers  ... 

Recreation 

Registration 


Trans. 
1. 

Trans 
2 

Trans. 
3. 

Gr. 
III.  a 

Gr. 
III.  b 

Gr. 
II.  a 

Gr. 

II.  b 

3.50 
45 
35 

4.0 
55 
40 

3.0 
60 
50 

3.45 
40 
50 

3.45 

5") 
55 

2.30 
55 
50 

2.30 
45 
50 

Gr. 
I.o 


2.30 
1.15 
1.15 


See  Language  Less. — Stories  and  Conver.  Less. 


2.15 
45 

1.55 
1.0 

30 

2.45 

45 

1-0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.40 
1.40 

1.50 
1.50 

2.40 

2.35 

3.20 

2.5 

1.40 

3.20 
2.5 

1.40 

2.30 


2.45 


1.0 

2.30 
2.10 

1.40 

3.20 
2.5 

1.40 


2.30 


2.30 


1.10 


1.55 


2.15 


2.45 


1.10 


2.15 


2.5      2.15 
2.5      1.25 


3.20 

2.5 

1.40 


3.20 

2.5 

1.40 


2.15 


2.0 


1.10 

2.5 
2.10 

3.40 

3.20 

2.5 

1.40 


1.15 


1.35 


1.0 

1.45 
3.10 

3.40 

3  20 

2.5 

1.40 


2.55 

3.20 
2.55 

3.45 

3.20 
3.45 
1.40 


Note. — The  three  Transition  Classes  correspond  roughly  with  Sts.  I. a,  1.6,  I.e. 
General  Notes  concerning  all  Infant  Time  Tables  set  out  here  : — 

Reading  below  Grade  III.  is  not  formal  reading,  but  language  lessons  and 

preparation  for  reading  by  blackboard  and  other  demonstrations. 
Writing.     Similarly  writing  is  not  formal  but  freearm  drawing  of  letters, 

etc. — sand  trays,  etc. 
Number.    Chiefly  taught  incidentally  in  the  lowest  classes. 


TIME-TABLES. 


241 


ANALYSIS   OF  TIME-TABLE   (INFANT   SCHOOL). 
Time  in  Minutes  for  each  Subject  per  Week. 


Subject. 

Time  in  each  Grade. 

St. 

St. 

St. 

La 

1.6 

l.c 

III.  a 

III.  // 

III.fi 

II.  a 

II.  6 

English — ■ 

/Composition   (W.) 
1            „           (oral) 

65 

55 

55 

Literature  ... 

65 

50 

75 

45 

50 

70 

70 

— 

Reading    and    Lan- 

guage        

185 

225 

200 

125 

125 

150 

150 

— 

Word  Building  and 

Sound  Drill 

50 

50 

70 

50 

50 

50 

50 

125 

Recitation  (see  also 

Literature) 

— 

30 

10 

25 

20 

— 

— 

45 

Stories 

40 

20 

20 

60 

65 

75 

90 

105 

Writing  and  Printing 

115 

95 

105 

125 

120 

115 

110 

50 

Number  and  Number 

Games 

135 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Drawing 

95 

105 

80 

100 

110 

110 

100 

90 

t  Object  Lessons 
'  Nature  Study 

25 

25 

— 

— 

— 

25 

20 

See 
Chats. 

50 

50 

75 

75 

100 

75 

50 

20 

Physical  Exercises  ... 

85 

85 

85 

90 

80 

80 

80 

80 

Kindergarten 

100 

105 

120 

120 

95 

115 

125 

220 

Optional  Lesson 

— 

— 

— 

— 

20 

— 

— 

20 

Geography     ... 

20 

20 

— 

— 

20 

— 

— 

— 

Chats...  '      

— . 

— 

— 

45 

45 

45 

40 

40 

Acting  (see  also  Sing- 

ing, Games) 

15 

— 

15 

25 

20 

15 

15 

20 

Marching  in  Hall     ... 

25 

25 

25 

25 

2.-) 

25 

25 

— 

Singing          

65 

80 

75 

70 

75 

70 

90 

100 

Scripture 

175 

175 

175 

17") 

175 

175 

175 

175 

Recreation     ... 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

175 

Registration,  etc.     ... 

65 

55 

65 

i 

95 

55 

55 

60 

110 

Notes.- 


S.  o 


-Q.)  8.50  to  9.5  a.m.     Monitors  at  work— care  of  class-rooms,  plants,  etc. 

(2)  9.5  to  9.15  a.m.     Upper  classes  in  Hall  (Mondays  excepted). 

(3)  When  lessons  are  not  followed  by  games  or  recreation,  five  minutes' 

interval   is  given   for    (a)  a  run  or  skip  out  of  class-room,    or 
(b)  game  in  class-room,  or  (c)  free  chat,  etc. 

(4)  11.10  or  11.30  children  in  the  two  lowest  classes  go  into  playground 

for  5  or  10  minutes. 

(5)  Time-table  for  Grade  I.  not  shown  here.     It  varies  according   to 

circumstances. 

18 


242 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


ANALYSIS   OF   TIME-TABLE   (GIRLS'   SCHOOL). 

Time  in  Minutes  in  each  Class. 


Sts. 

VII. 

Subject. 

St.  J. 

St.  II. 

St.  III. 

St.  IV. 

st.v. 

St.  VI. 

and  Ex. 

8th  and 

(3th  and 

4th  and 

VII. 

lOtli 

9th 

7th 

5th 

3rd 

2nd 

1st 

Form. 

Forms. 

Forms. 

Forms. 

Form. 

Forni. 

Form. 

English — 

(a)Comp.  (W.) 

60 

60 

60 

50 

60 

60 

60 

(h)      „     (Oral) 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

30 

30 

(c)  Dictation  ... 

30 

60 

60 

30 

— 

— 

— 

(d)  Grammar... 

30 

30 

30 

60 

90 

110 

110 

(e)  Literature 

— 

— 

— - 

30 

30 

30 

30 

(/)  Reading  ... 

210 

210 

210 

150 

150 

90 

90 

(g)  Recitation 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

(h)  Word  Buil. 

70 

70 

40 

20 

20 

— 

— 

(i)  Writing    ... 

60 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Arithmetic 

110 

110 

110 

110 

110 

130 

130 

,,       Mental 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Drawing 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

Geography 

90 

90 

90 

120 

120 

120 

120 

History... 

60 

60 

90 

90 

90 

90 

90 

Observation  and 

Nature  Study . 

90 

90 

90 

90 

— 

— 

— 

Organised  Games 

and      Physical 

Exercises 

70 

70 

70 

70 

60 

60 

60 

Singing... 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Scripture 

.. 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

Recreation 

.. 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Algebra... 

.. 

60 

60 

Hygiene 

.. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

90 

90 

90 

Needlework 

•  • 

120 

120 

120 

150 

150 

150 

150 

H.     M. 

IT.     M. 

H.     M. 

H.     M. 

H.     M. 

H.    M. 

H.     M. 

Total 

27  30 

27  30 

27  30 

27  30 

27  30 

27  30 

27  30 

Note. — Specialisation  in  Singing. 

Cookery  and  Laundry  taught  at  Centres. 
Physical  Exercises  include  Dancing  and  Skipping. 


TIME 


Class 

9.0- 

9.10 

9.10- 
9.40 

9.50- 

9.55 

9.40-10.9       10.0-10.30 

10.30- 
10.45    '3.55 

3.55- 

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SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


ANALYSIS   OF   TIME-TABLE   (BOYS'    SCHOOL). 


Subject. 

Time 

in  each  Standard. 

Ex. 

i. 

ii. 

in. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Vll. 

Vll. 

Composition   (W.) 

90 

90 

120 

140 

120 

120 

80 

(0.) 

GO 

Dictation... 

— 

60 

120 

120 

80 

30 

30 

— 

Grammar... 

— 

— . 

— 

60 

90 

120 

120 

120 

Reading  and  Li  ter- 

ature 

240 

210 

180 

120 

120 

110 

120 

90 

Recitation 

50 

50 

40 

50 

20 

20 

30 

■ — 

Word  Building  . . . 

110 

110 

120 

90 

— 

— 

— 

- — 

Writing    ... 

180 

90 

90 

30 

30 

30 

— 

— 

Arithmetic 

120 

120 

150 

150 

150 

210 

150 

180 

,,        (Mental) 

30 

50 

50 

50 

30 

20 

30 

— 

Drawing  ... 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

Geography 

60 

90 

120 

120 

150 

150 

140 

90 

History    ... 

— 

- — ■ 

— 

90 

90 

120 

170 

120 

Object  Lessons   ... 

120 

120 

120 

90 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Organised  Games 

— 

— 

— 

15 

— 

— 

60 

60 

Physical  Exercises 

70 

70 

70 

55 

70 

70 

60 

60 

Singing 

70 

50 

50 

40 

50 

50 

20 

50 

Scripture ... 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

200 

Recreation 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Examination 

90 

90 

90 

90 

— 

— 

— - 

— 

Colour  Work 

30 

30 

30 

30 

— . 

— 

— 

— 

Mechanics 

— 

— 

— 

— 

90 

90 

90 

— 

Algebra    ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

120 

90 

90 

120 

Bookkeeping 

120 

Euclid      

140 

Manual      Instruc- 

—■ 

— 

— 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

tion 

sess. 

sess. 

sess. 

sess. 

sess. 

Total 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

Ib50 

1650 

TIME-TABLES. 


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Gram.  (Analysis)  j  Singing 
Geography  Reading 

Arithmetic  Writing 


t  Grammar 

)> 
History 


Reading 


Geography 


Composition 
Geography 


Reading 


Writing 


Gram.  (Analysis)  I         Singing 
)  Nedlewk.  45  m.  +  Ph.  Ex.  20  m. 
j  Ph.  Ex.  20  m.  +  Col.  Dwg.  45  m. 
i  Drawing  and  Colouring 

(  Needlework 


I  Geography 


Composition 


o 

_o 
+3 

u 

o 

CD 

« 


3.20 


Grammar 
Reading 


3.55 


Reading 

Writing 


Ph.Ex.  20m.-fSing.20m.  +Wg.30m. 
Rd.  30 m.  +  Ph.  Ex.20  m.  +  Sng.  20  m. 


Composition  Oral 

>> 

History 

Composition 

Recitation 


Written  Compn. 

Composition 
Writing 


4.30 


Composition 


Reading 


Dictation 

Grammar 

Drawing 

Grammar 


Ph.  Ex.  -20  m.  +  Sng.  20  m.  +  Rd.  30  m. 


History 


Drawing 


3  >  7  > 

Reading  Writing 

Ph.  Ex.20  m.  +  Sing.20  m.  +  Rtn.30m. 
Rd.  30  m.  +Ph.  Ex.  20  in.  +Sg.  20  m. 


§  Silent  Reading 
Reading  Transcription 


a 


I 

CM 


VII. 

p.m.     Domestic  Training  (Cookery  and  Laundry):  Tuesday,  2-4.30  p.m. 

,he  Silent  Reading  gives  place  to  Geography  and  Composition. 


+3 

a 
o 

CD 

o 
'•5 

e3 

M 
ft 
o 

i— 1 

+3 

CD 

a 

u 

13 

o 

2 

— 

igist 

CD 

CD 

5 

CD 

o 

Omitting  overlapping  subjects- 

-Manual  Training, 

LOO 

X 

175 

Cookery,  and  Laundry. 

175 

55 

'00 

1?:. 

175 

55 

i.00 

175 

175 

55 

100 

175 

140 

— 

100 

175 

140 

— 

To  face  p. 

246 

TIME-TABLE   OF   A   SENIOR   MIXED   DEPARTMENT    OF 

TEN   CLASSES. 

Time  in  Minutes  for  each  Subject  per  Week. 


Time  i 

n  each  Standard. 

Subject. 

3  &  4 
B 

3&4 
G. 

5B. 

5G. 

6  B. 

6G. 

7B. 

7G. 

English- 

f  Composition   J 

(W.)\ 

70 

70 

115 

115 

115 

115 

90 

90 

1 

»     (Oral)J 

Dictation 

75 

35 

30 

30 

— 

— 

— 

— 

i  Grammar 

80 

80 

85 

85 

70 

70 

100 

100 

Reading 

145 

105 

150 

110 

125 

85 

150 

130 

Recitation 

70 

70 

80 

80 

80 

80 

80 

80 

Spelling 

40 

40 

^  Writing 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

Arithmetic 

180 

180 

210 

210 

210 

210 

210 

210 

,,        (Mental) 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

40 

Drawing  ... 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

120 

Geography 

120 

80 

70 

70 

80 

80 

80 

80 

History    ... 

110 

110 

80 

80 

110 

110 

90 

90 

Object  Lessons   ... 

30 

30 

40 

40 

— . 

40 

— 

— 

Organised  Games 

Physical  Exercises 

70 

70 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

Singing    ... 

75 

95 

95 

95 

95 

95 

95 

Scripture... 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

150 

Recreation 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

125 

Registration,    etc. 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

Needlework 

• — 

160 

— 

160 

— 

160 

— 

160 

Map  Drawing     ... 

40 

— ■ 

40 

— 

40 

— 

40 

40 

Recent  Events    ... 

30 

30 

— 

. — . 

30 

30 

— 

— 

Elem.  Science     ... 

— . 

— 

40 

40 



40 



Algebra    ... 

— 

— 

40 

— 

80 

— 

100 

— 

Total 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

1650 

Standard  3  boys  have  reading  in  place  of  map-drawing 

Laundry.., 


Manual  Training  ...   St.  7.    Mon.  a.m. 

,,   6.   Wed.  a.m.  and  p. M 

Thurs.  a.m. 
,,   5  and  6.    Wed.  a.m.  ;        Swimming  . 
Thurs.  a.m. 
Cookery St.  7.   Mon.  a.m.  ;  St.  6.  Mon.  p.m.  ;  St 

247 


,   St.  7.   Mon.  a.m. 

„   6.   Mon.  p.m. 

,,    5.    Fri.  p.m. 
,   Boys.   Tues.  9-10. 
Girls.    Fri.  2-3.15. 
5.    Fri.  p.m. 


248 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


TIME  TABLE   OF   A   BERLIN   SCHOOL   OF   EIGHT   CLASSES. 


Subject. 

Hours  for 

Each  Class  Per  Week. 

(Lowest.) 

(Highest.) 

VIII. 

3 

VII. 
3 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

III. 

II. 

I. 

Religion 

3 

4 

4 

6 

4 

4 

German 

8 

7 

7 

6 

b' 

4 

6 

6 

Observation ... 

2 

2 

2  . 

History 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3(2) 

Arithmetic  ... 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4(2) 

4(2) 

Geometry 

3 

3(2) 

3(2) 

Nature  Knowledge .. 

— 

— 

— 

2 

2 

4 

4(3) 

3 

Geography    ... 

— 

■ — ■ 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Drawing 

— ■ 

1 

2(1) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Writing 

— 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

Singing 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Gymnastics  ... 

2 

2 

2(1) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Sewing 

~ 

(2) 

m 

(2). 
28 

(3) 
32 

(4) 

(4) 

Total 

20 

22 

24 

28 

32 

32 

N.B. — The  numbers  within  brackets  refer  to  Girls. 
Note  especially  the  blank  spaces  in  the  first  three  columns  to  the  left. 


TIME-TABLES.  249 

Annual  Conferences,1  as  well  as  occasional  ones  to  meet 
special  cases,  between  the  head  teachers  of  the  departments 
of  a  school  are  desirable  with  a  view  of  (1)  co-ordinating 
the  methods  of  instruction  in  such  subjects  as  arithmetic, 
drawing,  writing,  nature  study ;  (2)  arranging  the  time  for 
the  recreation  interval  of  each  department  so  as  to  cause 
the  minimum  amount  of  inconvenience  to  the  other  de- 
partments ;  (3)  having  a  common  policy  in  the  endeavour 
to  bring  the  home  and  the  school  into  harmony ;  (4) 
making  provision  for  the  interchange  of  visits  between  the 
assistant  teachers  of  the  infant  and  senior  departments 
during  school  hours  ;  and  (5)  settling,  as  far  as  practicable, 
all  inter-departmental  relations. 

All  these  matters  may  need  careful  readjustment  from 
time  to  time. 

The  co-ordination  of  methods  in  certain  subjects  is 
extremely  important.  If  this  is  not  done  the  progress  of 
the  scholars  will  be  generally  retarded,  and  some  of  the 
energies  of  the  teachers  wasted  in  every  part  of  the  school. 
The  methods  therefore  ought  to  be  arranged  by  general 
consent,  and  those  adopted  for  subjects  common  to  depart- 
ments carried  out  in  all  loyalty.  Writing  especially  often 
suffers  through  the  want  of  a  general  agreement  on  main 
principles.  In  arithmetic,  again,  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  divergent  ideas  prevailing  in  different  places  as  to  the 
way  in  which  it  should  be  taught. 

The  kind  of  co-ordination  suggested  here  covers  mostly 
fundamental  principles ;  method,  in  its  full  sense,  is 
usually  charged  with  personality,  which  must  generally  be 
allowed,  within  limits,  to  have  a  wide  range  of  play. 

As  the  views  and  influence  of  the  assistant  staff  count  in 
these  matters,  the  interchange  of  visits  has  been  suggested 
— but  not  entirely  on  this  ground.     Generally  speaking, 
1  Enforced  in  L.C.C.  schools— Art.  64  L.C.C  S.M.  Code. 


250  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

there  is  no  bond  of  sympathy  existing  between  the  teachers 
of  infant  and  senior  departments.  Indeed  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find  some  teachers  openly  expressing  their 
disapproval  of  infant  methods  and  infant  ways  and  means 
generally,  and  occasionally  there  is  the  suggestion  of  a 
want  of  proper  preparation  for  the  senior  departments. 

This,  it  is  submitted,  results  from  a  wrong  conception 
of  the  functions  of  an  infant  school  on  the  part  of  those 
not  immediately  connected  with  it.  In  the  same  manner, 
infant  teachers  perhaps  do  not  always  appreciate  the  diffi- 
culties of  other  departments— difficulties  especially  felt  in 
the  lowest  grades  or  classes.  Hence  the  desirability  for 
mutual  understanding  and  intimate  individual  co-operation. 
If  an  infants'  teacher  is  allowed  to  spend  an  occasional  hour 
in  watching  the  methods  and  work  of  the  senior  depart- 
ments and  vice  versa,  it  is  claimed  that  a  better  correlation 
of  work  would  result,  that  many  existing  difficulties  would 
silently  disappear,  and  that  a  clearer  vision  as  to  the 
functions  and  relations  of  all  departments  would  come  to 
every  member  of  the  staff.1 

The  annual  conference  should  be  held  two  or  three 
months  before  the  close  of  each  educational  year,  and  a 
permanent  record  of  the  minutes  kept :  indeed  this  pre- 
servation of  the  minutes  should  apply  to  all  school  con- 
ferences. 

1  See  pp.  2  and  135,  Mosely  Education  Committee  Reports  1904, 
for  similar  arrangements. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


"  Self  -reverence,  self-knowledge,  self-control, 

These  three  alone  lead  life  to  sovereign  power." — Tennyson. 
"Self-government  is  the  object  a  great  school  proposes  to  itself 
in  its  life  and  laws." — Turing,  Education  and  School. 


DISCIPLINE.1 

Discipline  is  the  regulation  of  conduct  by  the  opera- 
tion of  will-power  in  the  individual.  The  will  must  be 
trained,  directed  into  right  channels ;  and  this  training 
can  only  be  effective  when  applied  to  daily  activities  and 
the  interests  associated  with  them.  The  will  cannot,  in 
other  words,  be  trained  by  mere  abstractions.  Fine 
thoughts  and  feelings  are  poor  stuff  unless  translated  into 
worthy  actions.  An  individual  is  not  what  he  thinks  and 
feels,  but  what  he  does.  Conduct  is  the  test  of  the  value 
of  life.  Character  results  from  the  link  between  mental 
states  and  actions :  and  this  link  should  be  voluntarily 
forged  by  the  individual  himself. 

Will  represents  a  relation  between  ideas  and  the  mind 
associated  with  them.  An  idea  is  always  the  starting- 
point  of  will-power,  and  therefore  the  precursor  of  action. 
A  condition  precedent  to  the  full  exercise  of  discipline  is 
good  feeling  and  a  mental  equipment  in  which  some 
at  least  of  the  ideals  that  have  tended  to  uplift  the  race 
and  mankind  at  large  have  found  a  place. 

1  See  Welton  and  Blandford's  Moral  Training  through  School 
Discipline  for  a  lucid  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  this  subject. 

251 


252  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Discipline  expresses  itself  externally  in  conduct.  Con- 
duct, however,  may  be  determined  by  rules,  regulatious, 
and  commands,  disobedience  to  wliich  may  involve  pains 
or  penalties — this  is  regulation  of  conduct  by  government, 
when  personal  liberty  would  lead  the  scholar  in  another 
direction.  So  far  therefore  as  conduct  is  determined  by 
•  government,  and  without  the  pleasurable  exercise  of  the 
will  by  the  individual,  it  is  not  the  result  of  discipline 
properly  understood.  Where,  however,  the  rules  and  re- 
gulations are  willingly  accepted  by  the  school  community 
for  guidance,  there  is  coincidence  of  will  between  the  ruler 
and  the  governed,  and  then  the  government  may  be  said 
■  to  be  merged  in  discipline.  When  this  merging  is  com- 
plete, the  ideal  has  been  reached  so  far  as  discipline  and 
government  are  concerned. 

It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  discipline  covers  a 
wider  field  than  government ;  that  while  the  latter  may  be 
merged  in  the  former,  discipline  will  still  have  an  inde- 
pendent realm  of  its  own  ;  otherwise  what  is  known  as 
distinctive  personality  would  cease  to  exist  in  school  life. 
Correspondence  between  them  can  never  be  complete.  Dis- 
cipline is  internal :  government  is  external.  The  springs 
of  the  one  are  within  the  individual:  those  of  the  other 
are  without. 

Environment  plays  a  most  important  disciplinary  part  in 
education.  The  standard  value  of  the  educative  process  is 
the  perfect  adjustment  of  the  individual  to  his  surround- 
ings. The  discipline  of  environment  lies  in  the  limitations 
imposed  on  needs  and  activities,  and  in  the  consciousness 
of  the  influence  of  these  limitations.  So  far  as  environ- 
ment influences  involuntary  behaviour,  it  is  not  educative ; 
but  when  action  is  controlled  or  has  a  consciousness  of 
purpose  behind  it,  the  disciplinary  or  educative  effect  is 
present. 


DISCIPLINE.  253 

The  ultimate  aim  of  discipline,  and  of  teaching  generally, 
is  mainly  moral — preparation  for  life — for  the  highest 
destiny  of  which  an  individual  is  capable ;  but  the  imme- 
diate aim  associated  with  the  graded  steps  in  the  educative 
process  is  not  necessarily  moral — indeed  it  mostly  has  no 
direct  connection  with  morality ;  but  every  step  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  implies  discipline,  and  this  is  -> 
essential  to  the  building  up  of  character.  These  steps  are 
the  training  ground  from  which  the  developed  personality 
should  emerge,  relatively  strong  in  those  qualities  which 
the  wise  educator  desires  to  forge :  and  among  those  quali- 
ties are  skill  to  perform  as  well  as  will-power  to  direct. 

Every  detail  in  school  work  should  co-ordinate  with  the 
organisation  in  order  to  realise  the  school's  aim,  in  which 
discipline  must  play  the  all- important  part.  Every  minute 
is  a  factor  in  the  process  of  the  formation  of  mental  atti- 
tudes and  habits  from  which  character  is  finally  forged, 
and  upon  which  an  intelligent  activity  is  founded. 

The  exact  adjustment  of  government  to  the  needs  of  all 
scholars — if  this  ever  takes  place — when  perfect  training 
is  necessarily  based  on  individual  differentiation — can  only 
be  regarded  as  a  miracle  of  achievement:  and  this  adjust- 
ment sometimes  approximates  to  exactitude,  since  discipline 
in  the  educator's  mind,  when  other  conditions  are  satisfied, 
works  so  largely  by  faith. 

The  two  chief  powers  that  help  to  train  and  mould 
character  are  therefore  government  and  environment — the 
latter  partakes  of  the  nature  of  government,  and  is  here 
used  in  its  broadest  sense.  These  two  combined  should 
give  the  law  of  life.  They  are  the  urging  finger-posts  that 
lead  the  way  to  self-direction  and  self-control. 

Discipline  then  is  of  two  kinds :  (1)  external  discipline, 
(2)  internal  or  self-discipline.  The  education  is  practically 
perfect  when  the  first  is  transmuted  into  the  second. 


254  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

The  "  law  for  man  is  in  the  first  place  an  external  law, 
but  it  may  become  an  internal  law.  When  man  has  once 
recognised  the  inner  law  and  bowed  before  it,  through 
this  reverence  and  voluntary  submission,  he  is  ripe  for 
liberty."1 

The  end  of  discipline  then  is  individual  self-government, 
and  its  outward  expression  is  conduct.  School  govern- 
ment, on  the  other  hand,  is  shown  in  general  orderliness 
and  in  the  ways  and  means  by  which  the  school  as  a  whole 
is  rendered  efficient.  Harmonious  development  of  each 
scholar  should  be  its  aim.  It  should  teach  the  child  what 
to  love  and  reverence,  and  see  that  this  love  and  reverence 
take  dynamic  form.  As  all  educative  power  is  discipline, 
so  discipline  in  its  broadest  sense  should  be  the  whole  life 
of  the  school,  the  rest  being  merely  accessories. 

As  the  laws  of  a  nation,  combined  with  the  public  con- 
science, give  the  standard  of  public  morality,  so  do  the 
laws  of  a  school,  added  to  the  influence  of  its  chief,  give 
the  standard  of  school  discipline.  If  the  government  is 
sound,  the  tone  is  certain  to  be  sound  also. 

Tone  is  both  the  voluntary  and  involuntary  manifesta- 
tions of  the  moral  attributes  of  a  school. 

Good  tone  therefore  implies  sound  discipline,  which  from 
the  class  point  of  view  has  been  already  discussed,  and 
the  main  principles  in  relation  thereto  indicated.  These 
principles  have  a  general  application.  Some  points,  how- 
ever, remain  to  be  stated  in  connection  with  the  school 
department. 

There  are,  of  course,  certain  fundamental  principles 
which  the  good  disciplinarian  always  accepts  for  his  guid- 
ance in  whatever  class  or  school  he  may  be  placed.  There 
are,  however,  auxiliary  aids  which  have  to  be  enlisted 
according  to  the  ages,  attainments,  and  sex  of  the  scholars. 

1  The  Simple  Life,  C.  Wagner. 


DISCIPLINE.  255 

There  arises  also  in  relation  to  these  the  question  as  to 
the  degree  of  application  of  some  of  these  fundamental 
principles. 

It  is  evident  that  the  discipline  which  often  characterises 
a  good  boys'  department  would  not  be,  as  a  whole,  equally 
suitable  for  a  girls'  school.  Again,  the  discipline  that 
might  be  admirably  adapted  to  a  girl's  department  would 
be  altogether  out  of  place  in  a  school  for  infants.  Similar 
differentiation  is  often  necessary  in  the  treatment  of 
children  in  the  various  classes  of  a  department.  The  land 
of  discipline  that  is  suitable  for  infants  between  three  and 
four  years  of  age  is  not  equally  applicable  to  children 
between  six  and  seven.  Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  as  a 
child  ascends  through  the  three  grades  of  an  infant  school, 
discipline,  in  its  proper  sense,  should  correspondingly  rise 
in  its  demands  upon  him. 

These  remarks  apply  with  almost  equal  force,  but  with 
some  variations,  to  the  classes  in  the  senior  departments. 
The  children  of  the  lower  classes  must  be  made  to  feel  the 
irresistible  power  of  external  forces,  whether  they  are  natural 
or  conventional.  The  iron  hand,  however,  ought  to  be 
covered  with  the  velvet  glove.  But  the  upper  classes,  and 
particularly  the  first  class,  do  not,  as  a  rule,  need  exactly 
the  same  disciplinary  treatment.  The  scholars  there  have 
already  passed  through  the  earlier  stages  of  a  firm  dis- 
ciplinary regime,  and  have,  in  all  probability,  been  guided 
thereby  and  shaped  their  habits  accordingly.  They  are 
drawing  nigh  to  the  threshold  of  the  labour  world,  and 
each  must  soon  play  his  part  without  a  mentor  by  his  side. 
It  is  desirable  therefore  that  the  older  pupils  especially 
should  learn  to  govern  themselves  collectively  and  indi- 
vidually whilst  kindly  corrective  powers  are  at  hand,  of 
which,  as  far  as  possible,  they  should  be  unconscious. 
In   other   words,   the    ideal   is   that   government   should  ^J 


A 


256  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

ultimately  be  absorbed  in  self-government.  In  perfect 
discipline  there  is  unconsciousness  of  the  existence  of 
law;  for  law  ceases  to  exist  when  full  obedience  is  ren- 
dered to  it. 

Of  course,  self-government  should  be  inculcated  in  every 
stage  of  school  life,  but  its  indispensable  nature  must  be 
insisted  upon  within  reasonable  limits  in  application  to  the 
older  scholars. 

Before  quitting  the  essentially  spiritual  side  of  this 
subject  as  distinguished  from  that  which  deals  with  mere 
routine,  it  is  desirable  to  state  what  those  fundamental 
principles  are  upon  which  every  kind  of  good  departmental 
discipline  must  rest.  These  must  appeal  successfully  to 
the  child's  whole  nature,  without  losing  sight  of  his  life 
as  an  organic  unity,  and  to  his  responsibility  as  a  member 
of  the  school  community.     It  may  be  laid  down  therefore 

(1)  That  the  premises  and  routine  of  the  school  must  be 
such  as  to  ensure  to  each  scholar  reasonable  bodily 
and  mental  comfort  and  adequate  'physical  exercise. 
Good  ventilation,  plenty  of  sunlight,  suitable  desks, 
and  change  of  work  and  position  are  therefore  neces- 
sary.    Hygienic  conditions  are  essential. 

(2)  That  natural  and  moral  beauty  should  be  loved  and 
moral  depravity  condemned.  Opportunities  of  ex- 
citing pleasurable  emotions  by  the  contemplation  of 
moral  attributes  or  the  sight  of  natural  beauty 
ought  therefore  to  be  seized  whenever  possible.  Of 
course,  it  is  equally  important  that  vicious  qualities 
should  excite  emotions  of  pain.  But  this  will  be 
next  to  useless  unless  mental  states  and  actions 
are  connected.  The  dynamic  principle  of  education 
should  be  always  applied  whenever  possible.  Train- 
ing  consists    mainly   in    the    formation    of    good 


DISCIPLINE.  257 

habitudes  and  habits,  and  the  will  must  be  braced 
for  this  purpose  in  every  phase  of  school  work. 
"  Character  is  higher  than  intellect.  A  great  soul 
will  be  strong  to  live,  as  well  as  to  think."  l 

(3)  That  the  intellectual  and  imaginative  faculties  be 
trained.  Imaginative  power  appears  to  wane  after 
a  child  has  passed  its  sixth  year.  This  is  probably 
because  little  or  no  pains  are  taken  to  cultivate  this 
power,  that  helps  to  colour  life  as  the  sun  colours 
the  flowers.  Imagination  makes  friends  with  nearly 
everything  in  the  world.  Napoleon  used  to  say, 
"  You  can  only  govern  men  by  imagination :  with- 
out imagination  they  are  brutes.  'Tis  by  speaking 
to  the  soul  you  electrify  them." 

(4)  That  the  law  of  the  school  must  be  based  on  moral 
law  and  a  knowledge  of  child  life.  The  ultimate 
sanctions  of  moral  law  are  to  be  found  in  natural 
law.  It  should  give  rewards  for  obedience  and 
industry  and  punishment  for  neglect.  Purposive 
obedience  is  the  root  of  the  higher  life. 

(5)  That  while  discipline  is  directed  to  the  training  of 
the  scholars  as  a  whole,  it  should  be  regulated  as  far 
as  possible  to  meet  each  child's  special  needs.  A 
word  of  kind  reproof  will  work  wonders  with  one 
pupil,  while  to  another  severe  rebuke  or  even 
stronger  measures  must  be  applied.  The  best 
training  does  not  consist  in  the  suppression,  but  in 
the  fullest  expression,  of  personality. 

(6)  That  the  teachers  should  be  in  sympathy  with  child 
nature  and  respect  its  natural  tendencies  and 
reasonable  desires.  "Sympathy  is  our  best  friend 
in  education."  2     It  helps  the  teacher  to  get  into 

1  Emerson.  2  Miss  Edgeworth. 

S.  O.  19 


258  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

real  contact  with  the  whole  spiritual  being  of  the 
child. 

(7)  That  there  should  he  unity  of  purpose  and  a  co- 
ordination of  interests.  Group-consciousness,  duty, 
rights  and  obligations,  and  other  factors  implied  in 
a  commonwealth  of  units  should  be  realised. 

(8)  That  the  interests  be  many-sided  and  have  corre- 
sponding intensive  activities.  Those  who  know  how 
to  use  time  to  the  best  advantage,  or  even  to  use  it 
well,  have  received  a  sound  training.  Close  appli- 
cation usually  implies  fidelity  in  little  tilings,  and 
this  is  the  root  of  all  great  achievement. 

"  The  entire  object  of  true  education  is  to  make  people 
not  merely  do  the  right  things,  but  enjoy  the  right  things ; 
not  merely  industrious,  but  to  love  industry ;  not  merely 
learned,  but  to  love  knowledge ;  not  merely  pure,  but  to 
love  purity;  not  merely  just,  but  to  hunger  and  thirst 
after  justice."  * 

Esjwit  de  corps  is  the  child  of  good  discipline.  It  is  the 
beneficent  spirit  that  animates  the  school  as  a  whole.  It 
symbolises  the  scholars'  devotion  to  the  school's  funda- 
mental laws,  to  its  interests,  and  to  its  honour. 

Of  all  the  many  ramifications  associated  with  school 
organisation,  few  are  more  important  than  the  work  of 
routine  and  enlisted  aids  that  have  for  their  object  the 
formation  of  good  habits  and  the  general  furtherance  of 
the  high  aim  which  discipline  has  in  view.  Brief  notice  of 
these,  under  various  heads,  is  desirable. 

Attendance. — The  value  of  punctual  and  regular  atten- 
dance to  a  school,  a  class,  and  the  individual  scholar  is 
manifest.     A  high  level  of  efficiency,  uninterrupted  progress 

1  Ruskin. 


DISCIPLINE.  259 

in  the  courses  of  instruction,  and  habits  of  systematic  and 
punctual  attention  to  duty  can  only  be  secured  when  the 
attendance  is  quite  satisfactory. 

The  minimum  of  absence  should  be  covered  by  actual 
necessity  and  those  calls  from  daily  routine  generally 
recognised  by  the  community.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  this  minimum  is  a  variable  quantity.  The 
age  and  sex  of  the  pupils,  the  district,  the  season,  and  also 
the  weather  when  abnormal,  are  operative  in  determining 
what  this  minimum  shall  be. 

Although  in  educational  administration  the  teacher  is 
not  held  directly  responsible  for  regular  attendance,  yet 
it  may  be  generally  said  that  when  the  sum  of  the  school 
influences  is  good,  the  regularity  of  the  scholars  fairly 
corresponds  with  it.  It  is,  moreover,  always  considered 
creditable  to  a  department  when  the  percentage  of  attend- 
ance is  high,  notwithstanding  the  responsibility  of  the 
bye-law  officers  in  these  matters.  But  the  punctual  side 
of  attendance  is  one,  perhaps,  that  lies  more  immediately 
within  the  range  of  the  teacher's  office.  If  there  is  any 
weakness  in  this  respect,  it  is  generally  found  that  the 
regularity  suffers  also. 

The  want  of  punctuality  is  sometimes  due  to  wilful 
dilatoriness :  but  there  are  certain  children  whose  develop- 
ment is  arrested,  and  who  have  little  or  no  "  time  sense." 
It  is  important  that  the  teacher  should  distinguish 
between  these  and  endeavour  to  apply  remedial  measures 
in  each  case. 

The  organiser  therefore  ought  to  leave  no  stone  unturned 
in  the  endeavour  to  obtain  that  high  degree  of  punctuality 
which  may  lie  within  the  possibilities  of  the  locality  in 
which  the  school  is  situated.  Punctual  and  regular  atten- 
dance ought  to  be  coveted  for  its  own  sake  as  a  duty,  apart 
from  the  immediate  or  ultimate  advantages  in  the  way  of 


260  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

school  efficiency.  It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  raise  it 
almost  to  the  position  of  a  divinity.  The  "  perfect  week  " 
is  an  ideal  institution,  its  perfection  consisting  in  the 
punctual  attendance,  each  session,  of  every  scholar  on  the 
roll  during  a  given  week.  In  other  words,  the  "perfect 
week  "  represents  the  percentage  of  attendance  as  100. 

Such  weeks  in  a  large  school  only  come  by  miracle,  or 
by  overstraining  the  motives  for  good  attendance  and 
giving  them  a  glamour  which  is  not  naturally  their  own. 
It  is  conceivable  that  children,  acting  under  the  zealous 
and  magnetic  influence  of  a  strong  head  teacher,  may  be 
led  to  attend  school  under  circumstances  that  make  it 
desirable  they  should  remain  at  home,  both  in  the  interest 
of  their  own  health  and  that  of  the  scholars  with  whom 
they  are  brought  into  contact.  The  "  perfect  week  "  is 
excellent  as  an  aim,  provided  the  pupils  are  safeguarded  by 
advisory  precautions.  It  is,  of  course,  easier  to  get  a 
week's  perfection  of  attendance  in  a  small  school  than  in  a 
large  one,  since  the  adverse  possibilities  are  reduced. 

Kewards. — The  term  rewards  ranges  in  meaning  from 
words  of  commendation  to  valuable  prizes  of  permanent 
form.  In  the  United  States  prizes  in  the  school  sense  are 
extremely  rare,  whereas  in  this  country  their  usefulness  is 
recognised  in  most  schools. 

It  is  a  fairly  common  practice  to  give  cards  and  prizes 
for  punctual  and  regular  attendance,  provided  that  conduct 
is  quite  satisfactory ;  but  each  school  when  under  isolated 
management,  and  each  educational  area,  has  had  its  own 
system. 

Cards,  however,  are  usually  awarded  for  punctual  and 
regular  attendance  either  weekly  or  quarterly  or  both. 
Prizes,  mostly  in  the  form  of  books,  are  awarded  annually 
on  the  basis  of  the  year's  attendances,  a  very  small  margin 


DISCIPLINE.  261 

of  absences  being  generally  allowed,  to  meet  either  excep- 
tional or  well-recognised  demands.  In  some  districts  the 
local  authority,  limiting  and  varying  the  amount  per  head 
to  be  expended  on  each  standard  or  class  according  as  it  is 
the  lowest  or  highest,  has  allowed  the  head  teacher  of  each 
department  to  draw  up  his  or  her  own  scheme  for  awarding 
prizes,  on  the  basis  of  attendance,  conduct,  and  progress. 
Such  schemes,  however,  should  be  approved  by  the  local 
managers  or  the  local  education  authority. 

In  order  further  to  accentuate  the  value  of  exemplary 
attendance,  some  authorities  award  medals  to  those  scholars 
who  have  attended  punctually  on  every  occasion  on  which 
the  school  has  been  open  during  the  educational  year, 
provided  the  absences  do  not  amount  to  more  than  the 
equivalent  of  two  whole  days.  It  should  be  noted  that 
these  medals  have,  as  a  rule,  little  or  no  intrinsic  value. 
They  mostly  consist  of  either  white  metal  or  bronze.  A 
silver  medal  is  sometimes  awarded  for  a  phenomenal 
achievement  in  the  way  of  attendance,  covering  a  period  of 
about  ten  years. 

Badges. — Some  head  teachers,  acting  on  their  own 
initiative,  have  instituted  badges  to  be  worn  by  scholars 
whose  exemplary  conduct  has  been  considered  worthy  of  a 
distinguishing  mark.  The  badge,  however,  does  not  become 
the  personal  property  of  the  scholar,  like  the  prizes  and 
medals,  but  is  liable  to  be  taken  away  should  there  be  any 
lapse  from  that  standard  of  good  behaviour  which  merited 
distinction. 

In  the  hands  of  a  wise  head  teacher,  this  system  might 
work  well :  but  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  the  growth 
of  priggishness  which  such  a  method  of  distinction  is  not 
unlikely  to  foster. 

If  the  badge  is  conferred  with  the  approval  of  the  class 


262  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

teacher — as  it  should  be — the  distinctive  mark  should  then 
carry  with  it  the  right-at-will  of  monitorship.  The  office 
would  then  probably  absorb  the  "  Jack  Horner  "  conscious- 
ness of  virtue  which  the  badge  alone,  without  the  office, 
would  tend  to  create  and  keep  alive. 

The  monitorship  only  refers  to  work  in  connection  with 
the  routine  of  the  class-room  and  the  playground,  and  not 
in  any  sense  to  teaching. 

Banners,  Flags,  School  Ladder,  etc. — It  has  been 
found  a  useful  stimulus  to  the  class  to  give  into  its  weekly 
keeping  a  banner  or  flag  for  meritorious  conduct  and  the 
best  attendance  during  any  particular  week.  This  induces 
a  friendly  rivalry  between  class  and  class  which  reacts 
on  the  individual  scholar  who  is  disposed  to  be  absent 
occasionally  and  unnecessarily  from  school.  Another  good 
plan,  tending  in  the  same  beneficial  direction,  is  repre- 
sented by  the  "  school  ladder,"  which,  hung  in  a  conspicuous 
position,  indicates,  during  any  one  week,  the  relative 
positions  of  merit,  in  regard  to  attendance,  of  each  class  in 
the  school. 

Again,  the  Friday  half -hour  has  proved  of  value  as  an 
incentive  to  excellent  class  attendance,  the  last  half -hour 
of  the  final  session  of  the  week  being  devoted  to  play  in  the 
case  of  the  class  or  classes  that  have  reached  a  certain  high 
percentage  of  attendance.  The  privilege  of  being  dismissed 
before  other  schoolfellows  apparently  has  its  charms.  Care 
must  be  taken,  in  connection  with  this  practice,  that  the 
necessary  two  hours'  secular  instruction  is  given  in  senior 
departments.  It  may  become  necessary  on  this  account  to 
reduce  the  "half -hour"  to  15  or  20  minutes  ;  but  even  then 
experience  shows  that  the  charm  remains  unbroken. 

On  abstract  grounds,  this  practice  is  hardly  commend- 
able,   notwithstanding    its    success.      As,   however — con- 


DISCIPLINE.  263 

sidering  the  short  time  involved — the  privilege  is  more 
technical  than  real,  one  is  not  disposed  to  cavil  at  it ;  but 
it  really  belongs  to  the  class  of  immunities  in  favour'  of 
which  little  can  be  said.  All  immunities  carry  the  implied 
official  sanction  that  temporary  exemption  from  school 
duties  is  a  desirable  thing ;  whereas  the  teaching  in  a  good 
school  should  inculcate  the  contrary,  and  the  training 
should  point  emphatically  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
teaching.  Life  has,  however,  many  strange  contradic- 
tions, and  possibly  the  school  also  must  have  its  miniature 
foibles. 

Monday  morning  and  Friday  afternoon  are,  as  a  rule, 
the  worst  sessions  of  the  week  for  attendance.  Why  is 
this  ?  There  must  be  a  psychological  cause.  The  pheno- 
menon is  so  constant  that  it  may  almost  be  regarded  as  a 
law.  A  special  appeal  to  scholars  or  parents  will  improve 
the  attendance  on  these  occasions  :  but  the  law  constantly 
asserts  its  claim  to  respect  and  secures  it  in  the  end.  A 
deviation  might  arise  under  temporary  pressure,  but  as 
soon  as  that  pressure  is  removed,  reversion  or  retroversion 
is  inevitable. 

"  Monday's  cardinal  and  reprehensible  error  "  consists  in 
"  beginning  the  business  week."  "  Monday  brings  a  feeling 
of  revolt."  "  Friday  allows  itself  to  be  a  little  flurried  and 
excited — to  some  extent,  throws  in  its  lot  with  Saturday." 1 

If  this  view  is  correct,  as  appears  likely,  though  it  is 
expressed  without  any  reference  to  school  life,  the  reasons 
for  departure  from  the  normal  seem  to  be  inherent  in  our 
social  and  religious  institutions.  However,  the  phenome- 
non, or  law,  implies  some  laxity,  the  result  of  undesirable 
mental  attitudes,  which  in  the  interests  of  the  children 
immediately  concerned  and  the  general  efficiency  of  the 
school  should  be  changed  for  better  states  of  mind. 
1  Essay  on  The  Town  Week,  E.  V.  Lucas. 


264  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Some  special  attractions  should  be  associated  with  the 
school  work  on  Monday  mornings  and  Friday  afternoons — 
a  means  to  the  desired  end  that  has  been  successfully 
adopted  in  not  a  few  schools.  On  Monday  morning,  for 
example,  when  the  building  lends  itself  to  full  assembly, 
the  head  teacher  addresses  the  whole  school,  reviewing  the 
past  week's  work,  driving  home  important  points  connected 
therewith,  and  calls  attention  to  any  public  events  of 
interest — using  all  as  a  moral  lever  to  uplift  the  school 
and  to  send  it  on  its  week's  way  with  a  strong  living 
impetus  charged  with  lofty  endeavour  and  the  force  of 
conviction.  These  occasions  are  also  used  to  inspire  the 
assembled  scholars  with  the  ideals  of  life  and  the  need  for 
the  acceptance  of  them  as  guides  if  complete  manhood  or 
womanhood  is  to  be  attained. 

These  addresses  should,  of  course,  be  always  thought- 
fully prepared.  They  should  represent  at  least  one  occasion 
in  a  week  in  which  the  head  teacher,  touching  the  highest 
plane  of  life  attainable  by  him,  reaches  out  to,  and  gets 
into  real  spiritual  contact  with,  every  scholar,  and  also 
with  every  member  of  the  staff.  Occasionally  an  able 
assistant  teacher  might  be  entrusted  with  an  address  of 
this  kind.  Change  is  stimulating,  and  different  modes  of 
presentation  have  their  educational  values. 

With  regard  to  Friday  afternoons,  myths,  legends,  fairy 
tales  told  by  the  teacher — these  never  lose  their  charm  at 
any  stage  of  life — lantern  lessons,  readings  from  favourite 
books,  dramatisation  of  historical  events  or  of  literary 
incident  (possibly  aided  by  paper  costumes  and  cardboard 
weapons)  have  been  found  attractive.  It  is  not  unusual  to 
have  on  the  time-table  an  "  optional  lesson  "  on  Monday 
morning  and  Friday  afternoon.  The  teacher  is  thus  free 
to  select  whatever  attractive  subject  he  considers  the  most 
effective  to  meet  a  particular  occasion. 


DISCIPLINE.  265 

Ethics  of  Rewards.— Is  it  advisable  to  give  rewards  or 
prizes  either  for  good  attendance  or  progress  ?  Although 
conduct  and  progress  are  generally  combined  with  attend- 
ance for  this  purpose,  the  rewards  in  practice  really  rest 
almost  exclusively  on  attendance  in  elementary  schools: 
that  presupposes  to  some  extent  the  other  two.  The 
motive  for  such  prizes  does  not  reach  the  great  majority  of 
the  scholars,  and  probably  nearly  all  those  who  secure 
prizes  would  attend  just  as  well  and  work  as  zealously 
without  having  the  prospect  of  rewards  in  view.  But  the 
worst  feature  of  the  case  is  that  attendance  prizes  tend 
to  weaken  rather  than  strengthen  the  obligation  to  be 
industrious  and  regular  at  school. 

The  community  imposes  the  obligation  of  attendance : 
industry  is  implied  by  this  imposition,  for  the  one  would  be 
almost  worthless  without  the  other.  Scholars  should  be  led 
to  realise  at  the  earliest  moment  that  this  double  obligation 
is  imposed  primarily  in  their  own  interests.  As  children 
delight  in  little  acts  of  service  to  their  elders,  they  should 
know  that  the  country  will  expect  service  in  some  form 
from  them  later,  and  that  this  service  cannot  be  efficiently 
rendered  unless  they  are  educated.  A  really  strong  motive 
for  attendance  and  industry  is  thus  forged,  which,  fostered 
by  parents  and  school,  can  rarely  fail  to  be  effective. 
An  appreciation  of  prospective  personal  importance  under 
reasonable  conditions  is  usually  an  incentive  to  activity. 

To  offer  prizes  for  doing  what  the  community  commands 
is  to  weaken  the  sense  of  obligation  imposed  and  to  starve 
the  growth  of  the  idea  of  duty,  which  demands  the 
expression  of  the  fullest  power  in  every  person.  Obedience 
is  the  first  duty  of  childhood. 

Although  the  prospective  service  to  the  state  is  remote, 
the  child  has  a  present  grasp  of  the  meaning  of  the  word ; 
and  moreover  the  certainty  of  service  in  the   future   is 


26G  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

assured  under  normal  educational  conditions  and  by  the 
prospect  of  life.  But  with  prizes,  the  case  is  vastly 
different.  In  the  first  place,  a  child  cannot  realise  what  a 
prize  in  its  full  sense  means  until  he  has  received  one ; 
secondly,  there  is  no  certainty  that  he  will  obtain  a  prize 
even  if  he  struggles  to  secure  it — indeed,  the  chances  are 
generally  strongly  against  success ;  and  thirdly,  there  is 
not  only  the  remoteness  of  possibility,  but  also  the  remote- 
ness of  time. 

It  usually  happens  therefore  that  prizes  for  achievement 
appeal  more  strongly  to  the  older  than  to  the  younger 
scholars,  and  far  more  forcibly  to  those  whose  natural 
ability  and  power  of  application  give  reasonable  assurance 
of  success  than  to  the  ordinary  pupils  of  a  school,  who 
constitute  the  great  majority.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said 
that  under  the  usual  conditions  of  award,  the  prize  system, 
applied  to  achievement,  does  not  appeal  to  the  ordinary 
scholar  at  all.  The  reason  for  the  stronger  appeal  to  the 
older  scholars  lies  in  their  acquired  power  to  generalise 
experience — to  organise  their  experience  into  concepts. 

This  ability  implies  a  degree  of  concentration  which 
enables  ends  to  be  kept  in  view  remote  from  the  present 
and  consequently  further  removed  from  the  primitive 
impulse  of  instinct.  With  young  children  instinct  is 
dominant :  it  teaches  them  to  look  to  the  present  rather 
than  to  the  future,  and  hence  for  them  even  the  prospect 
of  a  prize  induces  no  lasting  and  reliable  stimulus.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  weekly  cards  for  attendance  and 
conduct  are  much  more  effective  than  terminal  or  yearly 
awards — the  ends,  not  being  remote,  become  constantly 
operative. 

Prizes  possibly  tend,  it  is  said,  to  foster  a  desire  for  mate- 
rial gain  rather  than  a  sense  of  duty,  and  to  stir  up  feelings 
of  pride,  envy,  malice,  and  other  uncharitable  sentiments 


DISCIPLINE.  267 

altogether  opposed  to  the  true  corporate  spirit  of  a  school. 
This  conflict  of  feeling,  however,  only  applies  to  the  few 
who  run  a  close  race  without  the  sporting  spirit.  But 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  much  force  in  either  of  these 
two  contentions.  The  adverse  influence  is  often  unduly 
magnified  by  writers  on  these  points.  Every  device  to 
stimulate  activity  has  its  positive  and  negative  sides. 
Like  all  other  generally  recognised  school  devices  the  prize 
system,  it  is  believed,  can  be  rendered  innocuous  by  wise 
application,  which  would,  of  course,  include  adjustments  to 
meet  every  possible  situation.  Generally,  however,  at- 
tendance prizes  should  not  be  awarded.  Obviously,  good 
attendance  and  industry  have  their  own  rewards :  they 
imply  progress;  and  every  child  delights  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  power  conferred  by  added  physical  or  mental 
strength. 

If,  however,  prizes  are  awarded  in  a  school,  they  ought 
to  be  either  few  in  number  and  relatively  difficult  of 
attainment,  sustained  effort  being  indispensable,  and  con- 
fined to  particular  studies  that  need  special  encourage- 
ment ;  or  they  should  be  awarded  to  all  who,  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  teacher,  have  shown  consistent  application, 
struggled  to  master  difficulties,  and  generally  made  sound 
progress.  Indeed,  if  the  principle  of  awarding  prizes  is 
recognised,  both  these  plans  might  be  put  into  operation 
in  the  same  school :  but  the  less  material  value  a  prize 
has  the  better,  provided  it  is  otherwise  good,  unless  the 
prize  in  question  is  made  subservient  to  immediate  or 
projected  studies.  In  some  schools  prizes  are  given  for 
(1)  good  conduct  and  (2)  proportionate  success  in  studies. 
Sometimes  each  class  is  annually  allowed,  with  proper 
safeguards,  to  select  by  ballot  one  or  more  of  its  members 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  by  good  qualities 
throughout   the   year.      Proportionate    success   does    not 


268  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

necessarily  enable  the  cleverest  children  to  carry  off  the 
prizes,  but  renders  it  possible  for  the  dullest  scholar,  by 
supreme  effort  to  master  difficulties,  to  receive  due  recog- 
nition in  this  respect,  the  teacher  of  course  being  the  sole 
judge.  The  test  in  this  case  would  naturally  be  the  sum 
total  of  the  records  for  a  term  or  year,  and  not  a  final 
examination — making  proper  adjustments  for  age,  appli- 
cation, and  degree  of  ability. 

There  is  so  much  diversity  of  view  concerning  the 
question  of  rewards  that  it  appears  almost  hopeless  to 
arrive  at  any  purely  academic  agreement.  The  psychology 
of  the  question  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  established : 
but  strangely  enough,  the  basis  of  application  of  the  prize 
system  is  fairly  general,  and  this  is  especially  so  in 
secondary  schools.  There  are  some  who  think  prizes 
should  be  given  for  character  and  not  for  achievement ; 
others  would  reverse  this  order  and  make  conduct  a 
qualifying  condition.  On  the  other  hand,  some  educa- 
tionists would  award  prizes  for  voluntary  home-work  only ; 
while  a  few  others  refuse  to  accept  such  external  incentives 
to  exertion  and  consider  that  the  good  will  is  the  most 
effective  and  only  true  instrument. 

Tbe  true  value  of  a  prize  is  measured  by  the  extent  and 
intensity  of  the  effort  to  secure  it.  It  is  the  honour  asso- 
ciated with  the  possession  of  a  prize  and  not  its  monetary 
value  that  constitutes  the  real  motive  for  great  and  pro- 
longed exertion,  and  when  that  prolonged  struggle  is  ended 
and  the  consciousness  of  achievement  and  of  a  stronger 
and  a  fuller  life  is  made  manifest,  the  true  and  best  reward 
is  revealed.  This  motive  power  could  be  made  to  have 
a  wider  application  if  prizes  were  mostly  awarded  on  a 
"handicap'  basis,  instead  of  allowing  natural  talent  to 
get  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  spoils  of  victory. 

It  is  thought  that  certificates  artistically  designed,  suit- 


DISCIPLINE.  269 

ably  worded,  and  worthy  of  permanent  preservation  would 
serve  all  the  laudable  purposes  which  now  underlie  the 
award  of  prizes.  Certificates,  of  course,  would  have  to  be 
graded,  those  of  the  highest  type  being  few  and  very  difficult 
of  attainment.  They  might  be  classified  into  (1)  certificates 
of  honour,  (2)  certificates  of  merit,  and  (3)  certificates  of 
proficiency. 

The  timely  and  judicious  use  of  praise  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  school  work  will,  however,  often  effect  more  good 
than  the  remoter  prizes  and  certificates.  Scholarships  are 
awards  of  a  rather  different  type  to  those  which  have 
been  considered.  No  one  will  be  disposed  to  find  fault 
with  the  principle  of  giving  clever  and  industrious  chil- 
dren an  opportunity  of  obtaining  the  fullest  educational 
benefits  that  the  country's  institutions  afford. 

Punishments. — The  true  art  of  discipline  lies  in  the 
complete  government  of  children  without  their  conscious- 
ness of  restraint.  The  controlling  power  of  the  teacher 
falls  away,  therefore,  from  this  ideal  in  so  far  as  resort  to 
punishment  becomes  necessary.  Hence  every  task  im- 
posed, every  censure  administered,  and  every  measure  of 
restraint  applied  implies  some  defect  in  the  machinery 
of  government,  or  possibly  some  weakness  in  the  per- 
sonality of  the  staff — each  is  a  confession  of  failure  to 
influence  a  pupil  by  the  best  and  most  lasting  means.  All 
punishment  is  in  itself  an  evil ;  but  out  of  evil  good  often 
comes. 

The  necessity,  however,  for  some  form  of  restraint  or 
chastisement  to  meet  exceptional  cases  is  wisely  and 
generally  recognised.  Punishment  is  the  lesser  evil  ap- 
plied to  avoid  the  greater  one  that  lives  in  the  future.  A 
closer  study  of  the  individual  characters  of  children  would 
often  obviate  the  necessity  for  punishment.     The  ordinary 


270  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

child  is  charged  with  potential  activities ;  his  delight  is  to 
give  expression  to  them.  Instinct  ultimately  resolves  itself 
into  movement.  Good  discipline  should  keep  all  active 
tendencies  adequately  and  educationally  employed.  Varia- 
tions in  disposition  account  for  the  different  potentialities 
shown  by  children  and  their  tendency  to  run  in  certain 
directions. 

It  is  these  variations,  in  connection  with  large  classes, 
that  make  a  teacher's  work  so  difficult.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances it  becomes  a  practical  impossibility  adequately 
and  always  to  allow  for  the  personal  equation  in  directing 
the  activities  in  question;  and  therefore  unless  the  self- 
control  of  the  child  is  great,  or  implicit  obedience  has 
become  a  habit,  there  must  necessarily  be  some  individual 
breach  of  order  or  instructions.  Such  breach  is  a  child's 
safety-valve  for  the  time  being.  The  child,  however,  must 
be  made,  for  its  own  sake,  to  render  obedience,  to  cultivate 
will  power,  and  thus  keep  its  activities  under  proper 
control.  Self-restraint  can  only  come  from  experience  and 
training. 

If  the  tone  of  the  school  is  sound  and  the  class  teacher 
has  the  respect  of  his  scholars,  it  often  happens  that  the 
most  effective  punishment  is  the  reproof  of  the  teacher 
coupled  with  the  disapproval  of  the  conduct  of  the 
offender  by  the  other  members  of  the  class.  But  much 
depends  on  the  way  in  which  the  reproof  is  administered. 
It  is  not  so  much  what  is  said — though  that  of  course  is 
important — but  the  manner  in  which  the  words  are  spoken 
that  strikes  home,  leaves  the  lasting  impression  and  gives 
the  energising  power  that  leads  to  amendment — for  the 
ultimate  object  of  punishment  is  repentance. 

Not  a  few  teachers  insist  on  a  rigid  kind  of  class 
government — no  doubt  with  the  best  intentions — with  the 
view  probably  of  avoiding  or  reducing  the  possibilities  of 


DISCIPLINE.  271 

offence ;  the  result  is  that  the  scholars  tend  to  become 
automata.  This  is  not  discipline  ;  it  is  rather  the  negation 
of  it.  A  certain  amount  of  liberty — as  much  as  is  con- 
sistent with  the  accomplishment  of  sound  work — should 
be  granted  to  each  pupil ;  otherwise  there  can  be  no  choice 
of  action  and  consequently  no  training  of  the  will. 
Liberty  is  the  salt  of  the  school :  and  it  must  be  given 
even  if  breach  or  non-observance  of  rules  is  practically 
certain  to  follow.  Indeed,  it  will  be  found  that  the  rigid 
disciplinarian  not  only  subjects  himself  to  a  constant  and 
needless  strain,  but  finds  it  necessary  to  punish  more  often 
than  his  colleague  who  takes  a  saner  view  of  the  teacher's 
functions.  "  A  mild  and  liberal  rule  so  ameliorates  the 
tone  of  feeling  as  to  diminish  the  tendency  to  trans- 
gression.1 An  excellent  rule  for  the  teacher  is  pas  trop 
gouverner. 

The  sanctions  of  punishment  are  to  be  found  in — 

(1)  The   right    of  every  corporate  hotly  or   school  com- 

munity to  compel  its  members  to  observe  the  laws 
framed  for  their  common  welfare. 

(2)  The  implied  trust  inherent  in  a  school  community  to 

safeguard  and  promote  the  best  interests  of  each  of 
its  subordinate  members.  This  includes  measures 
to  insure  repentance  in  wrong-doers. 

(3)  Legal  sanctions. 

(4)  Natural  and  moral  sanctions. 

The  offences  that  justify  penalties  of  some  kind  are 
either  moral  or  disciplinary.  Disciplinary  faults  include 
breaches  of  the  school  rules. 

Punishment  has  a  two-fold  function — reformation  on  the 
one  hand,  and  prevention  on  the  other. 

In   some   American   schools   trial    by   jury   for    moral 

1  Education,  H.  Spencer. 


272  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

delinquency  Las  been  introduced,  the  teacher  acting  as 
judge.  The  Principal  of  Theyer  Street  School,  Providence, 
says : x  "  I  have  made  each  schoolroom  a  separate  unit  of 
organisation,  on  the  basis  of  continual  self-government, 
with  reference  not  only  to  the  larger  matters,  but  to  all 
the  details  of  discipline.  The  pupils  in  each  room  choose 
each  month,  by  ballot,  a  committee  on  self-government, 
consisting  of  five  members.  It  is  the  special  duty  of  this 
committee  to  take  notice  of  any  offences  against  good  order 
and  propriety. 

"  At  some  proper  time,  usually  at  the  close  of  the  school, 
the  chairman  of  the  committee  presides  over  the  class  and 
presents  the  charges  against  offenders.  The  pupil  charged 
is  allowed  to  say  what  he  chooses  in  defence  or  explanation, 
and  the  pupils  decide  by  vote  what  the  punishment  shall 
be.  The  teacher  is  an  ex-ojjicio  member  of  the  committee, 
and  places  in  the  hands  of  the  committee  any  complaints 
which  she  may  have  to  make  against  any  pupils.  She 
reserves  a  power  of  veto  which  she  exercises  in  case  the 
judgment  of  the  pupils  at  any  time  seems  to  be  im- 
proper." 

This  plan,  the  principal  states,  has  been  attended  with 
the  happiest  results.  "  The  attitude  of  the  school,  as  a 
whole,  exhibits  a  marked  change.  In  most  of  the  rooms 
the  notion  that  the  teacher  is  to  watch  the  children  to 
prevent  disorder  and  idleness  has  passed  away.  There  is 
quite  as  good  order  when  the  teacher  is  absent  from  the 
room  as  when  she  is  present.  This  plan  has  seemed  to  be 
especially  successful  in  developing  a  feeling  of  social  re- 
sponsibility" 

This  Theyer  Street  scheme  of  government  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  "  school  city  "  plan  as  carried  out  in  some  New 
York  schools. 

1  Vol.  10,  p.  135,  Special  Reports 


DISCIPLINE.  273 

Forms  of  Punishment. — Punishments  usually  assume 
the  form  of  (1)  caution  or  censure,  (2)  deprivations,  (3)  im- 
positions, (4)  suspension,  (5)  corporal  punishment,  and 
(6)  expulsion. 

Censure. — It  has  been  already  implied,  if  not  directly 
stated,  that  punishment  ought  to  be  used  sparingly.  Con- 
tinual fault-finding  does  harm.  Bona-fide  attempts  to 
eradicate  a  bad  habit  by  substituting  a  good  one,  or  to 
overcome  a  difficulty,  are  materially  aided  by  a  kind  word 
at  every  successful  or  half- successful  step ;  while  upbraid- 
ings  for  clumsiness  or  lack  of  wit,  etc.,  have  quite  the 
opposite  tendency.  Some  inexperienced  teachers  are  prone, 
on  the  commission  of  an  offence  or  blunder,  to  hurl  a 
battalion  of  unkind  words  at  the  scholar,  recalling  past 
offences  and  faults.  Such  action  is  mischievous.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  love  of  approbation  in  children  is 
strong ;  advantage  should  be  taken  of  this  on  every  proper 
occasion. 

Reproach  for  past  offences  is  poison  in  a  child's  veins ; 
whereas  apt  praise  will  sometimes  raise  a  giant  beanstalk 
in  a  night.  The  Bourbons  "  learnt  nothing  and  forgot 
nothing."  The  world  knows  their  fate ;  and  failure  can 
be  foreshadowed  for  every  one  who  does  likewise,  in  all 
walks  of  life. 

Private  censure  is  often  the  best.  It  is  not  good,  how- 
ever, to  be  absolute  on  any  of  these  questions,  unless 
fundamental  principles  are  involved ;  for  so  much  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  fault,  the  character  and  disposition 
of  the  offender,  the  surrounding  circumstances,  and  also 
the  personality  of  the  teacher — each  one  a  factor  in  deter- 
mining the  desirable  line  of  action, — that  the  teacher, 
having  himself  an  intimate  knowledge  of  all  concerned,  is 
most  likely  to  prove  the  best  judge  of  the  course  to 
s.  o.  20 


274  SCHOOL    OUGANISATION. 

pursue  in  a  given  set  of  circumstances.  Counsels  of  per- 
fection are  not  always  the  best  in  application,  especially 
when  made  to  suit  abstract  situations.  The  class  teacher 
therefore  should  use  his  own  good  judgment  in  these  cases, 
after  reviewing  all  circumstances  and  being  assured  that 
he  has  grasped  the  material  facts.  It  would  probably 
be  advisable  to  consult  the  head  of  the  school  when  the 
circumstances  are  somewhat  unusual.  If,  however,  the 
offence  is  a  moral  one,  committed  openly  in  class,  then  it 
is  probably  best  to  denounce  the  offence,  and  censure  the 
offender,  openly  also.  But  whatever  is  done,  observance 
of  the  principle  applicable  to  all  punishment  is  desirable, 
viz.  the  censure  should  not  go  beyond  the  minimum  neces- 
sary to  secure  the  object  in  view.  Excess  kills  the  purpose 
of  censure,  and  weak  denunciation  minimises  the  nature  of 
the  offence  in  the  minds  of  the  children. 

•  < 

Deprivations. — Deprivations  include  (1)  loss  of  marks, 
(2)  loss  of  place.  It  is  assumed  that  every  school  has 
its  system  of  good  conduct  marks.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  misbehaviour  ought  not,  under  any  circumstances, 
to  affect  the  marks  given  in  the  ordinary  subjects  of 
instruction.  Assuming  that  right  influences  are  at  work 
at  home,  and  that  the  parents  are  periodically  communi- 
cated with  concerning  a  child's  progress,  the  loss  of  marks 
for  indifferent  conduct  qua  conduct  ought  to  be  an  effec- 
tive weapon. 

Loss  of  place  may  follow  from  loss  of  marks  for  poor 
conduct,  and  assume  several  forms,  e.g.  (1)  temporary  dis- 
grace— a  scholar  is  removed  from  his  usual  place  in  class 
for  some  minor  but  persistent  fault — such  removal  not 
lasting  for  longer  than  one  or  two  sessions.  (2)  Loss  of 
play  at  the  recreation  interval.  (3)  Deprivation  of  the 
right  to  play  for  the  school  in  a  sports  match.     (4)  Do 


DISCIPLINE.  275 

tention  after  school  hours.  (5)  Loss  of  certificate  or  prize 
wholly  or  partially  dependent  on  good  conduct.  (6)  De- 
privation of  office,  e.g.  removal  from  the  position  of  prefect 
or  monitor.  Of  these  (2)  is  the  least  satisfactory.  This 
should  never  be  put  into  operation  against  a  class  as  a 
whole,  for  reasons  too  obvious  to  mention,  quite  apart  from 
the  demands  of  ventilation. 

Detention  after  school  hours  should  not  be  allowed  to 
exceed  half-an-hour,  with  or  without  impositions.  It  is 
usual  to  have  a  rota  of  teachers  for  this  purpose,  for  without 
close  supervision  detention  is  next  to  useless.  This  is  a 
fairly  good  remedy  for  careless  work  or  persistent  inatten- 
tion. Any  imposition  insisted  upon  during  this  time  ought 
as  far  as  possible  to  have  reference  to  the  loss  occasioned 
by  the  offence  for  which  detention  is  enforced.  Generally 
speaking,  however,  enforced  inactivity  is  a  great  punish- 
ment ;  but  it  can  hardly  be  justified  if  extended  to  half- 
an-hour,  if  it  can  be  justified  at  all. 

Impositions. — It  is  well  to  avoid  the  meaningless  per- 
nicious drudgery  that  consists  in  writing  a  word  or  phrase 
a  hundred  or  more  times,  and  also  the  task  of  committing 
to  memory  some  portion  of  the  Bible.  It  is  not  good  to 
associate  the  Bible  with  restraint  and  compulsion.  If 
writing  is  imposed,  it  is  best  to  associate  it  with  an  element 
of  interest  or  profit,  and  not  lifeless  routine,  so  that  the 
maximum  good  may  result. 

Corporal  Punishment  and  its  Ethics. — Corporal 
punishment,  next  to  expulsion,  should  be  the  dernier 
ressort.  Many  educationists  consider  this  kind  of  punish- 
ment is  more  efficacious  if  administered  in  private,  and 
after  the  lapse  of  an  hour  or  thereabouts  from  the 
time  the  offence  was  committed.     Circumstances,  however, 


276  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

sometimes  arise  when  it  is  deemed  desirable  to  administer 
such  punishment  before  the  class  or  even  the  whole  school, 
especially  if  the  offence  is  a  grave  one  against  the  school 
community.  It  is  manifestly  improper  for  a  teacher  to 
inflict  corporal  punishment  when  harbouring  feelings  of 
resentment  against  the  offender.  Such  feelings  might 
amount  only  to  righteous  indignation ;  but  the  danger 
of  excess  is  always  present  in  the  absence  of  calm  dispas- 
sionate judgment.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Bernard  Shaw 
says :  "If  you  strike  a  child,  take  care  that  you  strike 
it  in  anger.  ...  A  blow  in  cold  blood  neither  can  nor 
should  be  forgiven."  Possibly  the  best  comment  on  this 
extraordinary  view  is — "  probably  everything  which  Mr. 
Shaw  has  not  said  is  true."  However,  much  of  the  value 
of  punishment  is  also  lost  if  administered  while  the 
offender  is  not  in  a  normal  condition  of  mind,  that  is, 
in  a  state  of  anger  or  great  excitement.  Of  course, 
every  delinquent  ought  to  have  a  reasonable  opportunity 
of  defence. 

In  all  schools  in  which  corporal  punishment  is  regarded 
as  necessary — and  it  is  so  regarded  in  most  schools,  French 
institutions  being  a  conspicuous  exception — care  should  be 
taken  to  see  that  the  same  standard  is  maintained  through- 
out the  school,  that  the  offender  should  understand  that 
the  punishment  is  a  regrettable  necessity,  and  that  mercy 
is  always  allowed  to  season  justice. 

Herbert  Spencer  advocates  punishment  in  his  doctrine 
of  "  Natural  Consequences."  As  want  of  obedience  to 
natural  law  inevitably  brings  punishment,  so  a  breach  of 
rules  framed  for  a  child's  benefit  ought  to  bring  corre- 
sponding pain  and  penalties — they  are  a  foretaste  of  the 
reality  of  things  when  laws  are  violated. 

Spencer  argues  that  as  self-preservation  is  the  first  law 
of  life,  actions  that  are  injurious  to  the  organism  tend  not 


DISCIPLINE.  277 

to  be  repeated,  while  those  that  are  beneficial  call  for  repe- 
tition. Conduct  that  results  in  benefit  to  the  organism  is 
good,  and  conduct  that  results  in  injury  is  bad-,  and  hence 
the  "  ultimate  standards  "  for  behaviour  are  to  be  found 
in  the  happiness  or  misery  that  follows  it.  Whether  bodily 
conduct  is  therefore  rigid  or  wrong  must  depend  on  the 
resulting  reactions — whether  they  are  beneficial  or  detri- 
mental. 

All  transgressions  of  the  law  of  life  bring  their  penalties 
— the  "  unavoidable  consequences " — and  these  are  not 
artificial  and  unnecessary  inflictions  of  pain,  but  "  bene- 
ficial checks  to  action  at  variance  with  bodily  welfare." 
The  penalties  or  "  painful  reactions  are  proportionate  to 
the  transgressions  "  ;  they  are  "  natural,  constant,  direct, 
unhesitating,  and  not  to  be  escaped.  No  threats ;  but  a 
silent  rigorous  performance."  They  further  generate 
"right  conceptions  of  cause  and  effect";  they  represent 
the  operations  of  an  "  impersonal  agency  "  and  the  "  disci- 
pline of  pure  justice  "  :  they  are,  too,  the  "  true  restraints  ' 
and  the  "  most  efficient "  remedies. 

"  No  humanely-devised  penalty  can  replace "  these 
natural  reactions ;  for  "  artificial  punishments  have  failed 
to  produce  reformation."  The  highest  disciplinary  effects 
have  only  been  attained  by  those  who  "  approximate  their 
regime  to  the  methods  of  nature." 

In  the  operation  of  natural  laws  lies  the  "  guiding  prin- 
ciple of  moral  education." 

Spencer  maintains,  therefore,  that  artificial  penalties 
should  not  be  substituted  for  natural  reactions ;  but  there 
is  no  reason  why  artificial  penalties  should  not  accompany 
natural  penalties.  A  secondary  kind  of  punishment,  how- 
ever, should  not  usurp  the  place  of  the  primary. 

The  word  "natural"  in  this  doctrine  is  used  in  more 
than  one  sense — as  relating  to  (1)  inanimate  nature,  (2) 


278  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  living  organism,  and  (3)  what  is  acceptable  by  human 
wisdom  as  desirable  or  necessary,  e.g.  a  child  plays  with 
hot  cinders  and  burns  its  fingers ;  the  burning  is  a  "  natural 
consequence." 

Another  child  scatters  the  contents  of  a  box  of  toys  on 
the  floor  and  refuses  to  pick  them  up  and  replace  them. 
The  next  time  the  child  asks  for  the  box  the  request 
should  be  declined.  This  refusal  is  a  "  natural  conse- 
quence" also. 

He  pleads  for  an  intimate  connection  between  the  penalty 
and  the  offence :  the  former  should  be  the  "  true  conse- 
quence "  of  the  latter.  In  "  The  Vision  of  Dante  "  the 
same  idea  is  worked  out.  Similarly  Bentham  laid  down 
the  same  principle  in  application  to  the  Criminal  law. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  there  are  many  weak  spots 
in  Spencer's  argument.  So  far,  however,  as  immediate 
consequences  are  concerned,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they 
direct  or  control  the  initial  stages  in  the  process  of  the 
evolution  of  the  will :  and  this  is  Spencer's  fundamental 
point.  To  sum  up,  he  advocates  a  close  parallelism 
between  punishments  inflicted  by  human  agency  and 
those  penalties  or  natural  reactions  exacted  by  nature's 
laws. 

Both  Arnold  and  Turing  thought  corporal  punishment 
absolutely  necessary.  Turing,  however,  opposed  its  use 
for  moral  offences  on  the  ground  that  "  protracted  feeling, 
instead  of  sharpness,  is  wanted  in  dealing  with  a  sin."1 
He  considered  the  rod  should  be  confined  to  disciplinary 
and  wilful  offences,  other  than  purely  moral  ones. 

But  the  oldest  and  wisest  authority  on  this  subject  is 
Solomon,  and  his  view  is  still  honoured  by  fairly  general 
observance.  There  are,  however,  many  girls'  schools  of 
the  highest   efficiency  in   which  corporal   punishment   is 

1  Education  and  School. 


DISCIPLINE.  279 

unknown;  but  these  schools  are  dominated  by  a  powerful 
and  charming  personality.  Corporal  punishment  might 
perhaps  reach  its  vanishing  point,  even  for  boys,  when 
alt  teachers  are  strong  and  magnetic,  and  able  by  a 
sort  of  ethical  induction  to  neutralise  opposing  forces 
and  inspire  the  scholars  with  their  own  ideals  of  life 
and  its  duties. 

In  every  breach  of  law  many  factors  are  involved.  These 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  determined  before  punishment 
is  administered.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  teacher  may 
sometimes  be  the  chief  factor  and  primary  cause.  Dull 
method,  the  absence  of  careful  supervision,  laxity  of  aim — 
these  and  others  are  contributory  to  breaches  of  regula- 
tions. It  is  not  difficult  to  resolve  a  few  concrete  cases 
into  their  constituent  factors — of  course  they  will  vary  in 
each  instance,  probably  in  quantity  and  quality, — and  it 
will  be  found  by  this  analysis  what  a  surprising  number 
of  elements  there  are,  and  what  subtle  variations  are  some- 
times present. 

The  abstract  right  to  inflict  corporal  punishment  is  a 
great  force  in  itself.  Its  strength  lies  chiefly  in  its  silent 
reservation  and  suggestiveness.  As  a  static  power  it  is 
frequently  greater  than  when  dynamic,  and  probably  is 
always  so  if  associated  with  a  strong  personality.  Indeed, 
the  oftener  the  right  is  set  in  motion,  the  less  effective  it 
becomes.  When  unexercised  or  unseen  in  action,  it  looms 
large  in  a  child's  imagination  and  becomes  a  more  coercive 
and  mysterious  power  than  it  actually  is.  For  this  reason, 
privacy  of  punishment,  as  well  as  the  sparing  use  of  it, 
appear  most  desirable.  The  sympathy,  too,  of  class- 
fellows  is  less  likely  to  be  excited  in  the  delinquent's 
favour  when  penalties  are  exacted  in  camera. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  claimed  by  the  opponents 
of   corporal    punishment    that   it   represents    brute  force 


280  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

enthroned,  and  that  in  its  absence  the  teacher  has  the 
wholesome  discipline  of  both  governing  himself  and  keep- 
ing the  scholars  always  fully  interested  and  suitably  em- 
ployed. They  think  the  teacher  should  learn  "  to  walk 
without  a  stick." 

It  is  well  perhaps  to  state  seriatim  most  of  the  objections 
to  corporal  punishment — urged  by  those  who  oppose  its 
use : — 

(1)  It  is  degrading  to  the  child,  and  it  brutalises  the 
person  who  punishes. 

(2)  It  is  arbitrary. 

(3)  It  is  unnatural. 

(4)  There  is  an  absence  of  a  proper  standard  fcr  apply- 
ing the  punishment. 

(5)  It  appeals  only  to  brute  instincts. 

(6)  It  places  the  child  in  opposition  to  authority. 

(7)  It  creates  ill-feeling  between  child  and  teacher. 

(8)  It  is  cowardly. 

(9)  It  is  ineffective. 

All  these,  except  perhaps  (1)  and  (8),  are  supported 
either  directly  or  by  implication  by  Spencer's  "  discipline 
of  natural  consequences." 

The  opponents  of  corporal  punishment  fail  to  realise  the 
actual  conditions  of  school  life  and  the  nature  of  childhood. 
The  school  must  be  allowed,  without  unnecessary  inter- 
ruption, to  pursue  the  aim  of  its  existence.  The  machinery 
of  government  is  devised  to  secure  this  end.  Anything 
that  interferes  with  this  arrangement  must  be  brought 
into  line  or  cast  aside.  Society  is  protected  against  the 
lawless  individual  by  a  graded  system  of  penalties,  and  why 
not  the  school,  which  is  a  preparation  for  society  ?  The 
penalties  of  the  school  are  the  "  milk  of  human  kindness  " 
compared  with  those  imposed  by  society.     The  school,  too, 


DISCIPLINE.  281 

is  in  a  tutelary  position  in  regard  to  each  of  its  scholars. 
If  a  child  will  not  conform  to  law  as  a  child,  it  is  less  likely 
to  do  so  as  a  man  or  woman.  The  iron  regime  must  there- 
fore be  brought  into  play  to  compel  obedience,  for  the 
child's  own  sake,  apart  from  the  interests  of  the  other 
members  of  the  school  community — or  his  last  state  will 
be  worse  than  the  first.  "  He  who  has  not  been  chastened 
is  not  educated." 

Nature's  penalties  are  often  remote.  The  child  must  be 
trained  and  cannot  wait  for  their  operation.  Immediate 
penalties,  wisely  applied,  are  often  immediate  remedies. 
The  child  is  not  naturally  a  moral  being  :  far  from  it. 
Primitive  man  dominates  him.  He  is  by  no  means 
sensitive  to  moral  distinctions  or  moral  influence.  As 
mature  intellectual  power  comes  later  in  life,  so  it  is  with 
moral  power :  it  is  a  question  of  gradual  development. 
Those  who  think  corporal  punishment  degrading,  etc., 
consider  the  child  more  angelic  than  wild,  and  they  further 
ignore  the  great  variations  arising  from  the  personality  of 
the  teacher.  Their  premises  are  wrong ;  they  see  a  little 
of  the  truth  and  regard  it  as  the  whole  truth.  The 
fallacies  underlying  most  of  the  objections,  especially  ex- 
cepting (4)  set  out  above,  cannot  fail  to  be  discovered  by 
the  thoughtful  student. 

Bell  thought  that  deprivation  was  the  best  kind  of 
punishment,  while  Lancaster  pinned  his  faith  to  ridicule. 

In  most  educational  areas  rules  have  been  formulated  by 
the  local  authority  for  the  guidance  of  teachers.  In  some 
districts  corporal  punishment  may  only  be  administered 
for  grave  moral  offences,  and  not  even  then  till  other 
methods  have  been  tried  and  failed.  The  head  teacher  is 
usually  held  responsible  for  all  punishments  of  whatever 
kind ;  but  he  may  in  some  areas,  with  the  consent  of  the 
local  authority,  delegate  the  power  to  inflict  punishment  to 


282  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

those   assistants  whom  he  may  consider  worthy  of  the 
trust. 

There  is  a  f ;  irl  /  general  agreement  as  to  the  conditions 
and  principles  to  be  observed  in  connection  with  corporal 
punishment.  They  are :  (1)  It  should  be  regarded  as 
"beneficent  checks  to  actions"  at  variance  with  the  welfare 
of  the  child  and  the  school.  (2)  It  should  be  confined 
to  moral  offences,  and  certain  disciplinary  faults  that 
cannot  otherwise  be  effectively  treated.  (3)  It  should 
be  adjusted  to  the  character  of  the  offence  and  the  dis- 
position of  the  offender.  (4)  There  should  be  a  clear 
idea  as  to  the  cause  of  punishment,  both  in  the  mind  of 
the  child  and  the  teacher ;  and  the  justice  of  it  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  recognised  by  each.  (5)  It  should  be 
chiefly  confined  to  scholars  during  the  formative  period  of 
their  characters — say  between  six  and  'twelve  years  of  age. 
(6)  The  instrument  of  punishment  should  be  supple,  and 
light  in  weight.  (7)  Neither  party  should  be  in  anger. 
(8)  No  prolonged  period  should  intervene  between  the 
time  of  offence  and  the  punishment.  (9)  It  should  never 
be  used  as  an  incentive.  (10)  It  should  not,  except  under 
extremely  exceptional  circumstances,  be  administered  to 
highly  emotional  and  delicate  children.  (11)  It  should 
not  be  applied  to  any  part  of  the  body  readily  susceptible 
to  injury — and  of  course  it  should  never  be  applied  to  the 
head.  And  the  writer,  siding  with  the  minority,  would 
like  to  add : — (12)  It  should,  as  a  rule,  be  administered  in 
private  and  in  the  presence  of  another  adult. 

The  Law  of  Corporal  Punishment. — As  the  teacher 
should  be  an  exemplary  citizen  and  not  break  the  law,  it 
is  well  briefly  to  notice  the  legal  aspect  of  this  question. 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  any  kind  of  what  is 
known  as  unlawful  restraint  or  punishment  applied  to  a 


DISCIPLINE.  283 

child  by  a  teacher  is  actionable,  and  renders  the  teacher 
liable  to  fine  or  imprisonment.  Justification  can,  however, 
be  successfully  pleaded  when,  in  the  words  of  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Cockburn,  the  punishment  is  "  moderate  and  reason- 
able." Judo-ment  in  the  following  cases  briefly  summarises 
the  law  on  this  point. 

In  Begina  v.  Hopley  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  Cockburn, 
in  giving  judgment,  said  : — 

"By  the  law  of  England,  the  parent  or  the  schoolmaster,  who  for 
this  purpose  represents  the  parent,  and  has  the  parental  authority 
delegated  to  him,  may,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  what  is  evil  in 
the  child,  inflict  moderate  and  reasonable  corporal  punishment, 
always  however  with  this  condition,  that  it  is  moderate  and  reason- 
able. If  it  be  administered  for  the  gratification  of  passion  or  rage, 
or  if  it  be  protracted  beyond  the  child's  power  of  endurance,  or  with 
an  instrument  unfitted  for  the  purpose  and  calculated  to  produce 
danger  to  life  or  limb,  in  all  such  cases  the  punishment  is  excessive 
and  violent,  and  is  unlawful." 

In  Gardner  v.  Bygrave  Mr.  Justice  Mathew  said,  in 
giving  judgment : — • 

"The  point  for  the  court  was  Avhether,  according  to  the  law  of 
England,  it  was  criminal  for  a  master  to  cane  a  pupil  by  striking 
him  on  the  hand.  The  magistrate  stated  that  the  boy  deserved  the 
punishment,  and  he  did  not  attack  the  right  to  punish  corporally 
with  the  view  to  intellectual  stimulation,  as  the  counsel  for  the 
respondent  had  done.  It  was  clear  that  no  injury  was  caused  in 
that  case,  and  the  punishment  was  properly  inflicted.  The  reason 
given  by  the  magistrate,  '  that  caning  on  the  hand,  however  in- 
flicted, was  necessarily  attended  by  serious  injury,'  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  justify  this  conviction.     It  must,  therefore,  be  quashed." 

It  was  held,  too,  in  Cleary  v.  Booth — 

"That  besides  the  reasonable  authority  of  a  parent  or  guardian 
which  is  delegated  to  the  schoolmaster,  the  schoolmaster  had  also 
the  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment  upon  a  pupil  for  miscon-   <<" 
duct  on  the  way  to  and  from  the  school,  and  out  of  school  hours." 


284  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Expulsion. — Expulsion  is  fraught  with  such  serious 
consequences  that  it  should  only  be  resorted  to  when  the 
school's  resources  have  been  taxed  to  the  utmost  and  have 
failed,  and  when  the  continued  presence  of  the  offender  in 
the  school  is  likely  to  be  a  serious  menace  to  its  discipline. 
It  is  well  for  the  teacher  not  to  accept  sole  responsibility 
for  expulsion,  but  to  enlist  the  aid  and  authority  of  the 
managers.  The  Board  of  Education  has  taken  up  a 
definite  position  on  this  question,  and  will  support  the 
managers'  action  if  "  reasonable  ground  "  can  be  adduced 
for  exclusion.  In  this  connection  the  "  parable  of  the  lost 
sheep  "  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

The  Punishment  Book. — The  punishment  book  is  a 
necessary  official  adjunct  to  corporal  punishment.1  This 
book  should  contain  the  following  items  in  connection  with 
each  case — date,  name  of  scholar,  offence,  instrument  of 
punishment,  mode  and  amount  of  punishment,  and  signa- 
ture or  initials  of  the  teacher  responsible. 

Parents'  and  Managerial  Aid. — It  is  hardly  possible 
to  over-estimate  the  value  of  a  strong  sympathetic  link 
between  the  home  and  the  school.  The  home  sentiment 
is  one  of  the  most  sacred  things  in  life — it  may  be  said 
to  stand  next  to  that  of  religion.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  influences  of  the  home  are  not  favourable  to  training. 
The  child's  affections  are  nevertheless  centred  there.  It 
is  most  unwise  for  the  teacher  to  speak  disparagingly  of 
the  home  in  any  case,  since  that  course  is  likely  to  alienate 
whatever  sympathies  the  child  has  with  school  life.  To 
oppose  silently  vicious  home  tendencies,  by  endeavouring 
to  form  in  the  scholars  good  habitudes  and  habits  that  will 

1  Schedule  IV.,  Code  1910— "All  cases  of  corporal  punishment 
■*-  must  be  recorded  in  a  Punishment  Book." 


DISCIPLINE.  285 

possibly  negate  those  tendencies,  is  the  best  policy.  The 
wise  teacher  usually  finds  the  means  of  ingratiating  him- 
self into  the  hearts  of  the  parents,  well  knowing  that  even 
a  small  place  there  will  help  him  in  the  work  of  training. 

Visits  to  the  parents  are  recommended  whenever 
practicable.  The  personal  touch  will  often  clear  away 
difficulties  and  create  a  cordial  relationship,  in  which  the 
possibilities  of  future  misunderstandings  will  be  lost.  The 
parents,  too,  should  be  encouraged  to  visit  the  teacher  at 
school  when  any  doubt  arises  in  their  minds  as  to  the 
treatment  their  children  are  receiving  or  the  progress  they 
are  making.  Courteous  and  considerate  attention  to  com- 
plaints and  requests,  even  when  not  made  in  the  best 
possible  manner,  is  the  wisest  course  always.  One  dis- 
affected parent,  with  a  reasonable  ground  of  complaint, 
can  do  much  mischief,  while  every  good  and  thoughtful 
parent,  who  has  not  been  estranged,  can  serve  the  school 
in  at  least  two  efficient  ways.  In  the  first  place,  each  well 
home-trained  child  is  a  valuable  school  asset  that  is  not 
without  its  reactions  on  the  school  community;  and 
secondly,  the  parent  gladly  proclaims  the  beneficent  work 
of  the  school  in  the  locality,  upholds  its  authority,  and 
thereby  reacts  on  parents  less  worthy.  The  school  and 
homes  are  units  in  an  association  having  a  common 
interest  and,  to  a  great  extent,  a  common  aim.  The 
unexpressed  desire  characterises  both — that  the  children 
may  learn  to  "do  justly,  love  mercy,  and  walk  humbly " 
through  life. 

In  many  schools  the  influence  for  good  which  the  Com- 
mittee of  Managers  would  be  glad  to  exercise  is  not 
adequately  utilised.  Without  suggesting  anything  in  the 
form  of  interference  with  the  internal  management  of  the 
school,  it  is  submitted  that  the  managers'  willingness  and 
ability  to  help  might  be  usefully  directed.     The  teacher 


286  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

cannot  afford  to  disregard  any  local  force  that  will  aid  him 
in  the  consummation  of  his  work.  Cases  of  difficulty  with 
parents,  as  well  as  with  children,  might  well  invoke  the 
individual  or  collective  help  of  the  managers.  A  visit  to 
the  house,  or  a  letter  from  the  chairman,  has  often  been 
found  the  turning-point  in  a  new  and  worthy  career  for  a 
child,  or  a  fresh  and  agreeable  departure  from  old  ways 
on  the  part  of  the  parent.  The  managers  have  proved 
especially  helpful  in  some  poor  districts  by  adopting  a 
system  of  home  visitation  as  school  circumstances  invited. 
This  is  usually  done  by  the  ladies.  All  school  functions 
such  as  annual  excursions,  prize  distributions,  open  sessions, 
book  clubs,  juvenile  friendly  societies,  and  organisations  for 
underfed  children  are  other  favourable  oppportunities  for 
managers  to  be  brought  into  contact  with  parents  and 
children. 

Other  Aids  to  Discipline. — Other  aids  to  discipline 
are  (1)  annual  excursions,  (2)  reports  to  parents,  (3)  annual 
prize  distribution  meetings,  (4)  open  sessions,  (5)  savings 
bank,  (6)  home  lessons,  (7)  the  school  library,  (8)  leagues 
of  mercy,  of  courtesy,  (9)  school  clubs,  (10)  underfed 
children  organisation,  (11)  school  lists,  (12)  office  routine, 
(13)  the  hall  address,  (14)  the  honour  and  merit  award, 
(15)  the  school  motto,  (16)  the  school  cap  and  badge, 
(17)  public  examinations,  (18)  the  school  journey,  (19)  fire 
drill,  (20)  May  Queen  festival  for  girls,  (21)  Fairy  Queen 
and  Maypole  fete  for  infants,  (22)  the  old  scholars'  club, 
(23)  the  school  journal,  (24)  the  tooth-brush  club,  (25)  the 
annual  flower  show,  (26)  visits  of  nurses,  (27)  medical 
inspection,  (28)  the  "school  city"  method  of  government. 

Some  of  these  helps  call  for  brief  explanation  or  expan- 
sion. All  teachers  are  acquainted  with  the  pleasurable 
anticipation  that  belongs  to  a  child  months   before  the 


DISCIPLINE. 


287 


annual  Sunday  School  treat  takes  place,  and  the  almost 
delirious  joy  that  is  his  when  the  happy  day  has  arrived. 
A  similar  annual  outing  is  a  desirable  institution  for  every 
day  school ;  indeed,  the  practice  in  this  direction  is  grow- 
ing. All  agencies  for  good  become  the  more  effective  by 
being  closely  associated  with  happy  hours  in  the  lives  of 
children.  Association  between  parents  and  teachers  on 
occasions  like  these  strengthens  the  link  that  cannot  after- 
wards be  easily  strained  or  broken. 

Reports  to  Parents. — Periodical  reports  to  parents 
should  be  regarded  as  a  duty.  They  have  the  right  to 
know,  from  time  to  time,  how  far  the  school  is  carrying 
out  its  trust,  and  what  progress  their  children  are  making. 
And  this  information  should  have  the  stamp  of  authority, 
and  be  exact,  sincere,  unbiassed.  A  child,  too,  has  a 
natural  desire  to  please  its  parents :  it  is  the  more  likely, 
therefore,  knowing  these  reports  to  be  inevitable,  to  put 
forth  consistent  and  strenuous  effort  at  school,  and  to 
endeavour  to  secure  the  approbation  of  the  teacher  by  good 
conduct  and  general  progress.  It  is  best  to  avoid  long 
intervals  between  reports  of  this  kind.  Half-yearly  or 
term  reports  are,  however,  usual.  Generalised  monthly 
reports  to  supplement  these  would  be  valuable  for  junior 
scholars.1  The  enormous  amount  of  clerical  work  in- 
volved is,  however,  regarded  as  a  serious  objection;  but 
labour  that  will  help  to  give  grit  to  the  rising  generation 
should  not  be  withheld  or  grudgingly  given.  The  points  to 
accentuate  in  these  communications  are  conduct,  general 
progress,  and  attendance.  The  form  on  p.  288  is  a  suitable 
one  when  a  third  column  is  added  for  remarks  in  con- 
nection with  each  subject.  Columns  (1)  and  (2)  might 
then,  at  the  option  of  the  teacher,  be  dispensed  with, 

*  See  pp.  260-269,  "Rewards." 


288 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


REPORT  TO  PARENTS.1 

Scholar's  Attendance,  Conduct,  and  Progress. 
For  the ending 19 


Name_ 


Standard  or  Class 
Place  in  Class 


No.  of  Scholars  in  Class 

Number  of  Times  the  School  was  open  _ 
Times  absent Times  late 


Scale  of  Marks: — Excellent;  Very  Good  ;  Fair;  Bad. 


1 

Scripture  ... 
Reading    ... 
Writing    ... 
Arithmetic 
Spelling     . . . 
Drawing    ... 
Composition 

1 

2 

English     . . . 

History     . . . 

Geography 

Needlework 

Homework 
Manual 
Training 

Conduct    . . . 

1 

2 

Additional 
Subjects  : 

1 

i 
2 

General  remarks 


.Head  Teacher. 


Class  Teacher. 


Columns  1.     Maximum  number  of  marks  obtainable. 
2.     Marks  obtained  in  each  subject. 


»> 


Open  Sessions. — Open  sessions,  once  a  year,  have  been 
found  useful.  During  these  sessions — two,  as  a  rule,  are 
ample — the  ordinary  school  work  proceeds  as  usual,  and 
the  parents  are  invited  to  visit  the  school  and  see  its  work- 

1  The  Report  Form  should  be  headed  by  the  name  of  the  School, 


DISCIPLINE.  289 

ing  arrangements.  It  is  a  general  practice  on  these  occa- 
sions to  exhibit  some  of  the  work  that  has  been  done 
during  the  preceding  twelve  months.  The  open  session 
is  one  of  pleasure  to  the  parents  and  of  delight  to  the 
children. 

Home  Lessons. — Home  lessons,  given  with  discrimina- 
tion, are  valuable  adjuncts  to  school  work.  They  repre- 
sent more  than  anything  else  the  projection  of  the  school 
into  the  home.  They  help  to  show  parents  the  reality  of 
the  progress  the  children  are  making  ;  they  become,  under 
proper  limitations,  a  unifying  power  in  the  association  to 
which  reference  has  already  been  made.  Home  lessons, 
further,  render  material  assistance  in  the  direction  of  private 
effort,  without  which  self-reliance  and  resourcefulness  are 
an  impossibility. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that,  under  normal  conditions,  a 
reasonable  day's  work  for  a  child  has  been  done  at  the 
close  of  the  afternoon  session.  In  order  to  prevent  over- 
strain, therefore,  the  home  lessons  ought  to  be  able  to  be 
mastered  in  time  varying  from  twenty  minutes  to  an  hour, 
according  to  the  age  and  attainments  of  the  scholar.  The 
work  given  should  chiefly  lie  within  the  circle  of  the  year's 
course  of  instruction,  and  should  refer  generally  to  the 
application  of  what  has  been  already  taught.  What  is 
demanded  should,  of  course,  be  reasonably  within  the 
range  of  each  child's  powers,  and  be  of  such  a  nature 
generally  as  to  compel  the  scholar  to  rely  entirely  upon 
himself  for  its  just  accomplishment. 

The  encouragement  of  home  or  other  effort  external  to 
the  school,  in  the  direction  of  interests  outside  the  scope  of 
the  school  curriculum,  is  also  desirable.  Teachers  can  do 
much  to  direct  and  economise  activities  on  these  lines. 
Language  or  history  appeals  strongly  to  one  child,  drawing 
s.o.  21 


290  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

or  handicraft  to  another,  natural  history  to  a  third,  and 
so  on.  Each  bias  in  action  helps  to  widen  the  range  of 
thought  and  endeavour  that  must  favourably  react  on  the 
school  community.  The  main  thing  is  that  encourage- 
ment should  not  be  sporadic,  and  that  it  should  find  its 
chief  expression  in  a  system  of  appreciative  tests  and 
rewards  for  work  thus  voluntarily  accomplished.  And  in 
connection  with  this  it  should  be  said  that  no  school,  while 
giving  whole-hearted  support  to  games,  should  fail  to  give 
to  the  child  some  little  insight  into  the  right  use  of  leisure. 
Steadfast  work  gives  an  added  zest  to  play. 

The  kind  of  work  that  might  well  be  done  is  reading, 
memorising  passages  from  English  literature,  drawing, 
handicraft  work — well,  one  might  almost  say,  any  subject 
that  excites  interest  in  the  individual.  Preparation  of  a 
scene  or  play  for  a  coining  school  or  class-room  perform- 
ance will  sometimes  move  a  whole  class  to  voluntary  home 
activity.  It  is  generally  undesirable  to  be  exacting  as  to 
time  for  the  performance  of  work  of  this  character.  It  is 
not  one  effort  that  is  needed,  but  a  series  of  efforts  directed 
to  a  given  end.  Time  therefore  must  be  allowed  and  all 
rush  avoided.  It  is  manifest  that  home  lessons  are  out  of 
place  for  infants. 

One  of  the  Mosely  Commissioners  says  in  regard  to 
home  lessons  in  the  United  States :  "  Each  child  takes 
care  of  his  own  set  of  books,  carries  them  home  and  uses 
them  there.  Indeed  home  lessons  seem  to  be  general 
except  among  the  very  young  children." 1 

Meals  for  Children. — Underfed  children,  ill  clad  and 
ill  shod,  are  not  uncommon  in  many  urban  schools.  Sickly 
complexions,  pinched  faces,  emaciated  limbs,  and  other  out- 
ward signs  of  the  need  of  regular  and  proper  nourishment 

1  Mr.  H.  Coward,  Mosely  Education  Commission  Report,  1904. 


DISCIPLINE.  291 

are  often  too  apparent.  A  hungry  child  is  necessarily  un- 
fit to  receive  all  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  attendance 
at  school.  The  seeds  of  organic  disease  are  frequently 
sown  through  continued  ill-nourishment.  The  demands  of 
school  work  are  a  continual  drain  on  the  nervous  system, 
and  when  this  is  already  enfeebled  by  insuilicient  nutri- 
ment, deterioration  of  physique  is  inevitable. 

In  the  absence  of  voluntary  organisations  to  meet  cases 
like  these,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  seek  assistance  else- 
where. The  well-to-do  children,  in  some  schools,  bring 
boots  and  other  articles  of  clothing  to  aid  their  less  fortu- 
nate school-fellows — do  it,  that  is,  unobtrusively  through 
the  head  teacher ;  but  the  feeding  difficulty  must  be  met 
by  other  means.  No  child  receiving  help  in  clothing  or 
food  ought  to  feel  degraded.  The  food  should  be  the 
manna  in  the  wilderness. 

The  Education  (Provision  of  Meals)  Act  1906  now  pro- 
vides that  the  local  education  authority  may  (1)  associate 
with  themselves  any  committee  on  which  the  authority  are 
represented,  who  will  undertake  to  form  a  "  school  canteen 
committee"  to  provide  food  for  children;  and  the  said 
authority  may  aid  that  committee  by  furnishing  land, 
building,  apparatus,  etc.,  and  such  officers  and  servants  as 
may  be  necessary  for  the  purpose,  provided  the  authority 
do  "  not  incur  any  expense  in  respect  of  the  purchase  of 
food  "  ;  and  (2)  by  the  sanction  of  the  Board  of  Education 
"  spend  out  of  the  rates  "  a  sum  that  will  "  meet  the  cost 
of  the  provision  of  such  food,"  provided  (a)  that  other  funds 
are  insufficient  or  not  available  for  feeding  the  children, 
and  (b)  that  the  rate  levied  for  the  purpose  does  not 
exceed  a  halfpenny  in  the  pound. 

The  School  Library. — This  is  indispensable.  Its  value 
in  forming  character,  in  encouraging  application,  in  reach- 


292  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

ing  the  home,  and  in  many  other  ways,  is  undoubted.  "  A 
school  without  an  easily  accessible  library  of  at  least  a 
thousand  volumes  is  really  scarcely  a  school  at  all — it  is 
a  dispensary  without  bottles,  a  kitchen  without  a  pantry."1 
In  the  United  States  practically  every  school  either 
possesses  a  good  library  of  its  own  or  is  directly  associated 
with  the  public  library,  which  co-operates  with  the  school 
and  supplies  it  with  suitable  books.  The  following 
extracts  from  Mr.  H.  K.  Rathbone's  report  (Mosely  Com- 
mission) will  be  found  interesting  :  "  A  separate  depart- 
ment for  children  has  existed  in  the  Boston  Public  Library 
since  1895.  It  occupies  two  rooms,  one  for  recreative 
reading  and  the  other  for  study,  both  furnished  with  low 
tables,  chairs,  and  book-cases.  Children  over  the  age  of 
ten  years  can  be  card-holders  and  may  draw  two  books  at 
a  time.  In  the  reference  room  (study  room)  lessons  are 
studied,  compositions  written,  and  other  preparations  for 
school  are  done.  One  feature  of  the  room  which  is  con- 
stantly proving  its  value  is  the  collection  of  text-books 
used  in  the  Boston  Public  Schools.  Teachers  are  invited 
to  come  to  the  Library  with  classes  and  themselves  to 
give  instruction  or  make  use  of  books  reserved  for  them 
as  they  may  request."  Mr.  Rathbone  further  says  that 
advice  and  assistance  in  the  selection  of  books  are  given  to 
the  children  by  the  officials  in  charge  of  the  children's 
department. 

Similar  schemes  of  co-operation  between  public  libraries 
and  schools  are  now  in  operation  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  Every  urban  school  at  least  should  take  advan- 
tage of  the  cheerful  willingness  of  Borough  Councils  and 
their  librarians  to  aid  the  schools  in  any  reasonable  way. 
But  arrangements  of  this  nature,  no  matter  how  complete, 
cannot  supersede  or  replace  the  school  library — the  larger 
1  Mankind  in  the  Making,  H.  G.  Wells. 


DISCIPLINE.  293 

can  only  supplement  the  smaller.  No  public  official  can 
adequately  discharge  the  advisory  functions  of  the  teacher 
who  has,  or  should  have,  an  intimate  knowledge  of  his 
pupils.  The  library  of  a  senior  department  should  contain 
books  suitable  for  all  the  children  therein  and  should  be 
worked  systematically  on  a  weekly  or  fortnightly  basis. 
In  the  rooms  occupied  by  the  upper  classes  a  list  of 
books  that  every  boy  or  girl  ought  to  read  might  with 
advantage  be  hung  on  the  walls.  There  should  also  be 
a  reference  library  for  teachers  and  reference  books 
for  each  of  the  upper  classes.  The  latter  volumes — 
consisting  of  a  standard  dictionary  and  atlas, l  a,  Whit- 
aker's  Almanac,  the  Children's  Encyclopaedia,  and  pos- 
sibly a  general  Eailway  Time  Table — should  be  considered 
part  of  the  equipment  of  such  rooms  and  be  always  ac- 
cessible. 

League  of  Mercy,  Guild  of  Courtesy. — Leagues  and 
guilds  of  this  character  are  usually  associated  with  wide 
organisations  external  to  the  school,  to  which  scholars  may 
belong,  a  badge  being  worn  by  the  children  to  indicate 
membership.  In  order  to  become  a  member,  a  child  has 
to  make  a  promise  to  adhere  to  the  principles  which  the 
league  or  guild  was  established  to  foster.  It  is  important 
that  due  care  be  exercised  before  admission  to  membership 
is  allowed,  which  should  be  regarded  as  a  privilege  only 
to  be  obtained  by  a  probationary  period  of  good  conduct 
on  the  lines  upon  which  the  league  or  guild  is  founded. 
Solemn  promises  made  and   soon  broken  do  more  harm 

1  Dictionaries  and  atlases  should  be  provided  for  the  scholars 
in  the  higher  classes.  In  cases  where  the  school  does  not  possess  a 
school  library,  arrangements  should  be  made  to  supply  books  for 
the  reading  of  the  scholars  by  co-operation  with  organisations 
existing  for  the  purpose  or  otherwise. — Art.  20,  Code  1910. 


294  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

than  good.  The  school  that  does  not  train  its  pupils  to 
think  kindly  of,  and  to  act  considerately  towards,  dumb 
animals,  has  lamentably  failed  in  its  duty.1  The  efficacy 
of  these  institutions  might  be  easily  sapped  and  even 
rendered  baneful  by  affectation  or  pride  on  the  part  of  its 
members.  The  spirit  with  which  the  badge  is  worn  is 
everything  :  it  should  merely  be  a  symbol  of  a  pledge  to 
do  what  is  right  and  dutiful,  to  do  unto  others  as  you  would 
they  should  do  unto  you. 

School  Lists. — School  lists  giving  the  names  of  pupils 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  by  exemplary  conduct, 
punctual  and  regular  attendance,  close  industry,  or  general 
progress,  act  as  a  stimulus  to  some  who  are  not  readily 
responsive  to  ordinary  school  influences.  They  also  serve 
to  maintain  a  standard  of  high  aim  when  that  has  been 
once  reached. 

Office  Routine. — It  is  usual  in  most  good  schools  to 
have  posts  of  honour  for  highly  deserving  pupils,  who 
perform  monitorial  duties  of  various  kinds,  certain  other 
privileges  being  generally  attached  to  office.  The  circle  of 
influence  is  widened,  however,  by  not  confining  these  posts 
to  a  selected  few,  but  by  conferring  them  on  all  scholars 
in  rotation  who  show  they  are  worthy  of  trust  and  con- 
fidence. Such  rotation,  too,  reduces  the  possibility  of 
annoyance  which  sometimes  comes  from  those  who  consi- 
der themselves  permanent  tenants-at-will.  The  duties  of 
monitors  are  chiefly  confined  to    routine.     These   duties 

1  Moral  instruction  should  form  an  important  part  of  the 
curriculum  of  every  elementary  school.  The  instruction  should  be 
specially  directed  to  the  inculcation  of  ...  .  kindness  to  animals, 
etc.— Art.  2,  Code  1910. 


DISCIPLINE.  295 

must  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  their  studies.1  The 
election  by  ballot,  once  a  month  or  once  a  term,  of  a  class 
captain  by  the  pupils,  who  is  responsible,  next  to  the 
teacher,  for  the  proper  conduct  of  the  class,  especially  in 
the  playground  and  playing  fields,  has  been  found  a  useful 
step  in  the  direction  of  pupil  self-government.  But  no- 
where has  this  principle  of  self-government  been  carried 
out  so  successfully  as  in  America. 

The  Hall  Address. — Both  in  Germany  and  America 
the  hall  address  is  much  practised.  In  the  latter  country 
it  is  sometimes  given  daily  in  a  very  brief  way,  usually 
preceded  by  reading  some  portion  of  the  Scriptures  with- 
out comment. 

Once  a  week  it  is  desirable  for  the  head  teacher  to  give 
an  address  to  the  whole  school,  the  chief  aim  of  which 
should  be  moral  training.2  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say 
that  cold  didactic  lectures  are  quite  useless  for  this  pur- 
pose. If  any  good  is  to  result  from  these  weekly  addresses, 
the  incidents  upon  which  they  turn  should  be  drawn  from 
realities — from  contemporaneous  events,  from  history, 
from  the  Bible — using  these  as  the  vehicle  for  the  praise 
of  virtue  and  the  condemnation  of  vice.  Unless  pleasurable 
emotions  are  excited  in  the  contemplation  of  right-doing, 
and  painful  or  contemptuous  emotions  by  the  review  of 
wrong,  ethical  training  cannot  be  directly  effected. 

The  Honour  and  Merit  Board. — This  usually  consists 
of  a  framed  board  on  which  are  recorded  the  names  of 

1  See  Arts.  11  {/),  43  (e),  and  Schedule  IV.  (21),  Code  1910.  "  The 
Board  do  not,  however,  prohibit  the  employment  of  young  persons 
...  to  assist  the  teachers  in  matters  of  class  routine,  other  than 
teaching." — President  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  March  11,  1907.  2  See  Art.  2,  Code  1910. 


296  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

pupils  who  have  obtained  scholarships  or  passed  other 
examinations  worthy  of  mention.  Any  noble  acts  per- 
formed by  individual  scholars  should  find  permanent 
expression  on  the  school  walls  in  a  similar  way.  These 
records  especially  serve  to  stimulate  useful  impulses,  to 
impress  upon  the  pupils  the  corporate  life  of  the  school, 
and  to  give  it  an  historical  interest. 

The  School  Journey. — The  school  journey  is  based  on 
the  idea  of  a  country  holiday  for  the  scholars,  under  the 
control  and  management  of  teachers,  as  a  combined  source 
of  health,  pleasure,  and  education. 

As  the  journey  may  vary  considerably  in  length  of  time 
and  specific  purpose,  according  to  circumstances,  it  is 
probably  best  here  to  relate  particulars  of  the  journey  as 
carried  out  in  a  London  school,  rather  than  give  a  descrip- 
tion by  mere  generalisations. 

In  this  school  the  Easter  holiday  is  utilised  for  the 
purpose.  The  head  teacher  many  weeks  beforehand  sends 
a  communication  to  the  parents  announcing  the  objective 
of  the  journey  and  giving  the  probable  cost,  which  varies 
from  21s.  to  23s.  6d.  for  eight  days. 

Journeys  have  been  made  to  Abergavenny,  Chepstow, 
Malvern,  etc.,  these  places  being  chiefly  used  as  a  base  for 
daily  excursions.  Generally  about  forty  or  fifty  scholars, 
from  Standard  III.  upwards,  accompanied  by  three  or 
more  teachers,  form  the  party. 

Each  boy  is  supplied  with  a  hectographed  guide-book 
of  about  forty  pages,  giving  the  following  informa- 
tion : — 

(1)  The  personal  necessities  for  the  outing,  accompanied 
with  general  instructions.  (2)  The  time-tables  of  the 
outward  and  homeward  journeys  from  London.  (3) 
Incidents    of    these    journeys — things    to    be    seen   and 


DISCIPLINE.  297 

observed  on  the  way — e.g.  natural  phenomena,  centres  of 
industry,  public  buildings,  lines  that  meet  at  railway 
junctions,  etc.  (4)  Itinerary  for  each  day  with  brief  notes 
on  objects  of  interest.  (5)  Topographical  maps,  eleva- 
tions and  sections  of  hill  ranges,  geological  sections  of  the 
various  districts  to  be  visited,  sketches  of  fossils,  etc.  (6) 
Geological  notes.  (7)  A  list  of  the  party.  (8)  Individual 
cash  account,  giving  spaces  for  receipts  and  expenditure 
each  day — checked  daily  by  the  teachers.  (9)  A  blank 
register  for  the  record  of  marks  on  conduct,  cleanliness, 
and  local  knowledge.     (10)  An  Index. 

Al  fresco  and  other  lectures  are  given  by  the  teachers.  It 
is  found  that  gentlemen  of  local  standing  gladly  give  their 
help  to  the  party  on  matters  in  which  they  possess  special 
knowledge,  e.g.  a  vicar  shows  the  party  over  his  church,  or 
a  dean  over  a  cathedral,  pointing  out  architectural  charac- 
teristics and  beauties,  and  colouring  its  existence  with 
historical  fact ;  a  local  scientist  gives  lectures  en  mar  chant 
on  the  geology  or  botany  of  the  district ;  a  retired  colonel 
accompanies  the  party  to  an  old  battlefield,  fights  the  battle 
over  again,  or  explains  the  mysteries  of  a  fort  or  a  Roman 
camp. 

To  illustrate  some  of  the  things  accomplished  by  the 
party  on  these  journeys,  the  following  will  suffice:  (1) 
Traced  a  tributary  from  its  source  to  entry  into  the  main 
stream.  (2)  Climbed  hills  over  1000  feet  high,  and  noted 
the  counties  seen,  elevations  and  depressions,  towns  and 
villages,  great  landmarks,  etc.  (3)  Searched  for  fossils, 
each  boy  bringing  home  a  small  collection.  (4)  Visited 
places  of  historical  interest,  such  as  ancient  camps,  Roman 
and  British. 

Each  lad  is  examined  daily  on  the  knowledge  obtained 
from  his  previous  day's  work,  and  entries  are  made  in 
his  guide-book  accordingly. 


298  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

As  to  cost,  (1)  the  Railway  Company  carries  the  children 
at  quarter  fare ;  (2)  modest  temperance  hotels  take  the 
children  for  10s.  or  lis.  per  week,  including  board,  lodging, 
and  service. 

Many  of  the  boys,  as  well  as  the  teachers,  carry  a 
camera.  At  the  close  of  each  journey  a  descriptive  photo- 
album  is  made,  containing  cuttings  from  the  local  press 
and  other  descriptive  matter,  which  is  preserved  as  a 
souvenir. 

Some  results : — (1)  Cordial  relations  between  teachers, 
scholars,  and  parents.  (2)  The  scholars'  exceptional  interest 
in  geography,  geology,  topography,  and  local  history.  (3) 
Strong  tendency  to  improve  the  discipline  and  tone  of  the 
school. 

Day,  week-end,  and  even  fortnightly  outings  of  this 
character  are  rapidly  growing  into  favour. 

Some  of  the  journeys  recently  undertaken  are  to  the 
point,  as  they  show  the  main  objective,  length  of  stay,  and 
number  of  teachers  and  scholars : — (B.),1  to  Darley  Dale, 
Derbyshire,  June  2nd  to  June  16th  (60),  5  teachers ;  (B.), 
to  Stoneleigh  Abbey,  Kenil worth,  July  6th  to  July  20th 
(20),  1  teacher ;  (B.),  to  G-oudhurst,  Kent  (30),  2  teachers ; 
(B.),  to  Whitstable,  June  30th  to  July  14th  (50),  4 
teachers ;  (B.),  to  Denton,  Sussex,  June  18th  to  July  2nd 
(25),  2  teachers;  (B.),  to  Malvern,  June  25th  to  July  9th 
(25),  2  teachers;  (B.),  to  Bexhill,  July  11th  to  July  20th 
(30),  2  teachers;  (B.),  to  Dymchurch,  Kent  (36  younger 
boys),  July  1st  to  July  15th,  2  teachers ;  older  boys  (36),  1 
teacher,  2  part  of  time;  (Gr.)>  to  Witnesham,  Ipswich,  classes 
of  40  taken  for  3  weeks  each  during  May  to  September, 
with  2  teachers. 

1  B.  =  Boys'  department ;  G-.  =  Girls'  department.  Number  of 
pupils  indicated  in  brackets.  See  also  Educational  Pamphlets, 
No.  21,  A  School  Week  in  the  Country. 


DISCIPLINE.  299 

The  School  Motto. — Each  school  should  have  its  own 
motto — one  so  simple  as  to  appeal  to  each  of  its  scholars. 
A  motto  helps  to  give  to  a  school  a  well-defined  in- 
dividuality, and  adds  to  its  life  another  trait  that  dis- 
tinguishes that  school  from  all  others.  It  crystallises  the 
central  point  on  which  the  school's  moral  teaching  bangs, 
and  acts  like  a  strong  cement  in  binding  its  units  together. 
History  teaches  how  a  phrase  giving  clear  definition  to  a 
great  principle  will  hold  a  multitude  of  people  together, 
and  transform  them  in  aim  into  a  homogeneous  whole. 
In  selecting  a  school  motto  it  is  well  to  request  the 
parents,  through  the  scholars,  to  suggest  a  briefly  expressed 
sentiment  for  the  purpose.  This  is  practicable  in  most 
districts.  The  head  teacher  and  staff  could  then  select  a 
few  of  those  suggestions  considered  to  be  the  best,  and 
submit  them  to  the  vote  of  the  whole  school,  with  the  view 
of  adopting  the  one  motto  which  most  completely  accords 
with  the  views  of  the  majority.  "  The  school  should  be 
the  symbol  of  an  eternal  unifying  spirit."1 

Fire  Drill.2 — Fire  drill  is  essential.  The  school  must, 
at  various  times,  be  called  upon  suddenly  and  unexpectedly 
to  go  through  this  drill  at  a  given  signal.  This  signal  is 
generally  the  ringing  of  hand,  electric  or  other  bells,  and 
the  object  is,  of  course,  to  effect  a  speedy  clearance  of  the 
building  without  undue  haste  or  excitement.  Apart  from 
the  value  of  the  drill  as  a  safety  measure  in  case  of  fire,  it 
also  trains  the  child  to  face  unexpected  and  even  dangerous 
situations  with  composure.  It  is  an  object  lesson  too  in 
the  desirability  of  prompt  obedience. 

The  May  Queen  Festival. — Once  a  year,  in  some 
girls'  departments,  the  scholars  are  called  upon  to  select 

1  Words  of  the  U.S.  Commissioner  of  Education. 

2  Art.  2(9),  Code  1910. 


300  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

their  May  Queen.  Simplicity  and  purity  of  character, 
combined  with  sweetness  of  disposition,  invariably  carry 
off  the  palm  on  these  occasions.  At  the  festival  which 
follows  the  queen  is  enthroned  and  crowned,  and  the  chil- 
dren show  their  deference  to  her  quality  and  submission  to 
her  authority.  The  Fairy  Queen  Fete  is  a  similar  institu- 
tion for  infant  schools,  the  upper  classes  only  taking  part 
in  the  selection  of  the  favoured  one. 

Clubs. — With  regard  to  old  scholars'  clubs,  it  is  lament- 
able to  find,  in  large  urban  centres,  scholars  stepping  over 
the  threshold  of  the  school  at  the  leaving  age  and  never 
crossing  it  again.  They  pass  out  of  sight,  like  the  shadow 
figures  on  the  bridge  in  the  vision  of  Mirzah. 

Some  provision  should  be  made  for  keeping  in  touch 
with  ex-scholars  for  at  least  three  or  four  years,  in  order 
that  the  spirit  of  the  school — assuming  it  to  be  good — may 
be  kept  active  within  them.  This  is  all  the  more  neces- 
sary in  poor  localities  where  surroundings  are  often  depress- 
ing and  where  temptations  are  sometimes  rife.  The  years 
from  about  14  to  17  are  the  most  perilous  in  life — more 
especially  for  the  boy.  "  The  dawn  of  puberty  is  soon  fol- 
lowed by  a  stormy  period  of  great  agitation,  when  the  very 
worst  and  best  impulses  in  the  human  soul  struggle  against 
each  other  for  its  possession,  and  when  there  is  a  peculiar 
proneness  to  be  very  good  or  very  bad.  As  the  agitation 
slowly  subsides,  it  is  found  that  there  has  been  a  renais- 
sance of  either  the  best  or  the  worst  elements  of  the  soul, 
if  not  indeed  of  both."1 

For  these  reasons,  it  is  eminently  desirable  to  have  an 
ex-scholars'  club  in  connection  with  each  school,  meeting 

say  fortnightly  or  monthly,  on  a  social  basis.     Such  a  club 

would  emerge  all  the  more  naturally  when  societies  or 

1  Adolescence,  Dr.  Stanley  Hall. 


DISCIPLINE.  301 

clubs  exist  in  the  day  school.  For  pupils,  cricket  and 
football  clubs  are  possible  in  most  places.  A  rambling 
club — occasional  Saturday  and  evening  outings — has  been 
found  most  valuable  too  in  many  schools :  photography, 
sketching,  natural  histoiy,  according  to  the  bias  of  indi- 
vidual members,  can  thus  come  into  play.  A  Shakespeare 
society — especially  for  girls — has  also  been  found  practi- 
cable, membership  being  confined  to  the  upper  classes. 
In  this  connection  home  effort  takes  a  prominent  part. 
Objective:  (1)  to  study  one  or  two  plays  in  each  year, 
(2)  to  dramatise  certain  parts,  (3)  to  have  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  poet's  life  and  the  places  associated  with  it, 
and  (4)  to  grow  the  flowers  mentioned  by  Shakespeare,  and 
to  learn  the  sentiments  expressed  in  connection  with  them. 
Clubs  should  be  regarded  as  indispensable  adjuncts  to 
school  life. 

The  School  Journal. — The  school  journal,  issued 
monthly,  in  printed  form,  is,  as  a  rule,  only  practicable  in 
large  schools,  assuming  that  it  must  pay  its  own  expenses. 
A  journal  has,  however,  been  found  possible  in  small 
schools,  and  also  in  some  large  ones,  when  taking  hekto- 
graphed  or  typewritten  form.  It  is  so  useful  in  a  multi- 
tude of  ways,  especially  in  conveying  both  necessary  and 
desirable  information  to  parents  and  scholars,  that  the 
wonder  is  it  has  not  been  generally  adopted.  As  a  stimu- 
lus to  thought  among  the  scholars,  whose  compositions 
when  of  exceptional  merit  should  be  inserted  in  the  journal, 
it  has  few  rivals.  But  what  is  equally  important  is  this — 
it  is  the  monthly  message  from  school  to  home. 

In  districts  in  which  the  schools  do  not  lie  very  far  apart 
it  seems  quite  practicable  to  have  a  room,  occupying  a  central 
position,  fitted  as  a  miniature  printing  office,  for  the  use  of 
the  neighbouring  schools.     The  upper  standard  scholars 


302  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

could  then  have  one  lesson  a  week  in  type-setting  and 
printing — valuable  instruction  in  itself — and  thus  be  able 
to  set  up  and  print  the  journal  for  their  own  schools. 

The  Tooth-brush  Club. — The  proper  care  of  the  teeth 
has  an  important  bearing  on  health.  The  habit  of  tooth- 
cleansing  should  therefore  be  formed  early. 

"  What  is  known  as  a  '  Tooth-brush  Club '  has  been 
formed  in  certain  day  schools,  and  has  been  of  service  in 
improving  dental  cleanliness.  The  head  teacher  or  the 
Care  Committee  lays  in  a  stock  of  tooth-brushes  which  can 
be  obtained  wholesale  for  2|d.  each;  these  brushes  are 
then,  after  some  preliminary  dental  instruction,  sold  to  the 
children  for  2|d.  each,  paid  in  instalments  of  ^d.  or  ^d.  a 
week,  the  small  profit  being  used  to  supply  tooth-brushes 
to  very  poor  children. 

"  Precipitated  chalk  is  also  sold  in  halfpennyworths, 
and  it  is  found  that  numbers  of  the  children  readily  join 
the  clubs,  and  some  even  save  their  money  to  buy  tooth- 
brushes as  birthday  presents  for  their  parents,  and  one 
boy  went  on  his  own  initiative  into  the  streets  at  Christmas 
to  sell  toys  in  order  to  obtain  money  to  join  the  tooth- 
brush club.  The  tooth-brushes  are  called  for  inspection 
periodically,  and  on  every  convenient  occasion  the  necessity 
for  tooth-cleaning  is  insisted  upon."1 

The  Flower  Show. — The  scholars  are  encouraged  to 
grow  flowers  at  home,  and  to  exhibit  them  at  the  annual 
show  usually  held  on  the  school  premises  in  July,  when 
prizes  are  awarded  for  the  best  relative  efforts  in  plant 
cultivation  and  also  for  skill  (among  the  girls)  in  table 
decoration.  The  infants  are  expected  to  grow  their  plants 
from  seed,  and  the  pupils  of  the  senior  departments  may 

1  See  Report  of  L.C.C.  Medical  Officer,  1910. 


DISCIPLINE.  303 

obtain  their  plants  for  cultivating  purposes  either  through 
the  school  by  purchase,  or  from  any  other  source.  The 
award  of  prizes  at  the  show  is  usually  based  on  these 
three  classes.  The  usefulness  of  an  institution  of  this  kind 
is  apparent.  There  is  not  only  the  brightness  which  the 
flowers  infuse  into  the  homes,  but  there  are  also  the 
intense  pleasure  and  continuity  of  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  scholar  in  cultivating  things  of  beauty  which  cannot 
fail  to  have  their  salutary  effects. 

Visits  of  Nurses. — A  system  of  school  visitation  by 
trained  nurses  is  in  operation  in  many  educational  areas. 
Children  cannot  fully  profit  by  school  discipline  if  their 
heads  and  clothing  are  not  clean,  and  those  who  are 
properly  cared  for  by  their  parents  have  a  right  to  be 
protected  from  contact  with  dirty  scholars.  The  nurses 
therefore  examine  the  scholars  in  some  schools.  Those 
who  are  not  in  a  satisfactory  condition  receive  a  card  to 
be  delivered  to  their  parents,  who  are  instructed  thereon 
to  take  certain  curative  steps  for  cleansing  purposes,  and 
further  advised  that,  if  within  a  week  the  cleansing  has 
not  been  effected,  the  children  in  question  will  be  separated 
from  their  school  fellows  until  the  unclean  condition  is 
remedied.  There  are  further  measures,  calculated  to  wear 
down  all  resistance,  if  parents  are  found  obstinate  in  these 
initial  stages. 

Medical  Inspection. — Under  section  (13)  of  the 
Education  (Administrative  Provisions)  Act  1907  it  is  in- 
cumbent on  the  Local  Education  Authority  "  to  provide 
for  the  medical  inspection  of  children  immediately  before, 
or  at  the  time  of,  or  as  soon  as  possible  after,  their  admission 
to  a  public  elementary  school,  and  on  such  other  occasions 
as  the  Board  of  Education  direct,  and  ...  to  make  such 


304  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

arrangements  as  may  be  sanctioned  by  the  Board  of 
Education  for  attending  to  the  health  and  physical  con- 
dition of  the  children  educated  in  public  elementary 
schools." 

The  "  School  City  "  Method  of  Government.— This 

aims,  as  the  name  implies,  at  governing  a  school  chiefly 
by  means  of  its  pupils  in  a  similar  way  to  that  adopted  by 
adults  in  the  government  of  a  city.  Space  forbids  details. 
This  plan  is  successfully  carried  out  in  many  American 
schools. 

General  Remarks. — But  these  devices  as  aids  to  disci- 
pline will  be  next  to  useless  unless  thoroughness  charac- 
terises all  that  are  called  into  use.  They  are  not  intended 
to  curb  personal  liberty,  nor  to  restrain  activities,  but  to 
guide  and  direct  them  into  fruitful  channels,  and  to  serve 
useful  ends.  "  All  things  are  moral.  That  soul,  which 
within  us  is  a  sentiment,  outside  of  us  is  law." 2 

The  admirable  words  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Code 
of  1910  give  an  immutable  standard  of  aim  in  all  that 
concerns  the  school :  "  Teachers  can  do  much  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  conduct.  They  can  endeavour,  by  example 
and  influence,  aided  by  the  sense  of  discipline  which  should 
pervade  the  school,  to  implant  in  the  children  habits  of 
industry,  self-control,  and  courageous  perseverance  in  the 
face  of  difficulties  :  thev  can  teach  them  to  reverence  what 
is  noble,  to  be  ready  for  self-sacrifice,  and  to  strive  their 
utmost  after  purity  and  truth ;  they  can  foster  a  strong 
sense  of  duty,  and  instil  in  them  that  consideration  and 

1  See  also  Board  of  Education's  Circulars  576,  582,  596  ;  and  the 
Board's  Minute,  dated  June  25,  1910,  which  demands  medical  inspec- 
tion of  "all  children  admitted  to  the  school"  in  any  year  ending 
July  31,  "  and  all  children  who  are  expected  to  leave  school "  in  that 
year.  2  Emerson. 


DISCIPLINE.  305 

respect  for  others  which  must  be  the  foundation  of  un- 
selfishness and  the  true  basis  of  all  good  manners ;  while 
the  corporate  life  of  the  school,  especially  in  the  play- 
ground, should  develop  that  instinct  for  fair  play  and  for 
loyalty  to  one  another  which  is  the  germ  of  a  wider  sense 
of  honour  in  later  life. 

"  In  all  these  endeavours  the  school  should  enlist,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  interest  and  co-operation  of  the  parents 
and  the  home  in  an  united  effort  to  enable  the  children  not 
merely  to  reach  their  full  development  as  individuals,  but 
also  to  become  upright  and  useful  members  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  they  live,  and  worthy  sons  and  daughters 
of  the  country  to  which  they  belong." 


s.  o.  22 


CHAPTER  VII. 


"The  keeping  or  checking  of  school  registers"  is  of  '*  vital  im- 
portance."— Pre/.  Memorandum,  Code  19l0. 


SCHOOL   RECORDS   AND   REGISTRATION. 

Both  records  and  registration,  on  the  lines  laid  down 
by  the  Board  of  Education,  are  necessary  to  obtain  recog- 
nition as  a  public  elementary  school.  The  principal  objects 
of  these  are  to  ensure  and  preserve  an  historical  account 
of  the  growth  and  development  of  the  school  as  a  whole 
or  any  variations  in  its  numbers,  its  efficiency,  or  its  staff ; 
to  have  a  statement  concerning  each  scholar — his  name, 
address,  date  of  birth,  progress,  daily  attendance  and 
date  of  withdrawal ;  to  supply  the  necessary  figures  and 
information  to  the  Board  of  Education  as  a  basis  for 
the  annual  grant;  to  supply  information  to  the  bye-law 
authority  in  order  that  attendance  may  be  enforced,  or 
exemption  granted ;  and,  finally,  to  have  a  properly  authen- 
ticated record  of  reports  received  and  grants  allowed. 
Every  school  must  have  three  kinds  of    registers,  viz. 

(1)  the  register  of  admission,  progress  and   withdrawal, 

(2)  the  class  attendance  registers,1  and  (3)  the  summary 
register.  The  first  and  second  of  these  are  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  individual  scholars,  while  the  last  deals  collec- 

1  Including  a  partial  exemption  register  if  part-time  scholars  are 
in  attendance. 

306 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  307 

tively  both  with  the  groups  of  children  in  the  form  of 
classes,  and  with  the  school  as  a  whole. 

The  general  conditions  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  regis- 
tration are  thus  laid  down  by  the  Board  of  Education1 : — 

"  Attendance "  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
average  attendance  of  a  school  may  be  reckoned  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  following  regulations.  The  rules  of 
Schedule  IV.  must  govern  the  registration  of  attendance. 

(a)  No  attendance  may  be  reckoned  for  any  scholar 
(1)  who  is  under  three  or  (2)  over  16  years  of  age  at  the 
close  of  the  school  year,  provided  the  latter  limit  has  not 
been  extended  under  Section  22  (2)  of  the  Education  Act, 
1902,  or  for  any  scholar  while  habitually  employed  as  a 
monitor. 2 

(b)  For  each  infant  present  at  secular  instruction  during 
one  school  meeting  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  one  hour 
and  a  half  there  should  be  reckoned  one  attendance.  The 
one  hour  and  a  half  may  include  the  recreation  interval. 

(c)  For  each  scholar  other  than  an  infant  scholar  pre- 
sent at  secular  instruction  during  one  school  meeting  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  two  hours — including  the  recreation 
interval — there  should  be  reckoned  one  attendance ;  and 

(d)  For  each  such  scholar  who  is  allowed  partial  exemp- 
tion there  may  be  reckoned,  in  addition,  half  an  attendance, 
subject  to  the  following  limitation: — 

"  the  total  of  the  additional  attendances  allowed  in 
the  case  of  any  partial  exemption  scholar  may  not 
exceed  the  number  which,  when  added  to  the  number 
of  his  two-hour  attendances  during  the  school  year 
(or  that  portion  of  the  year  which  has  elapsed  since 
he  became  a  half-time  scholar)  gives  the  number  of 
the  school  openings  in  the  corresponding  period." 

1  Arts.  43-49  and  Schedule  IV.  2  Art.  43  {e)i 


308  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  making  up  the  minimum  time  constituting  an  attend- 
ance there  may  be  reckoned — 

"  (i)  any  time  occupied  by  secular  instruction,  according 
to  the  approved  time-table,  given  to  the  scholars  elsewhere 
than  at  the  school ; 

"  (ii)  any  time  occupied,  with  the  sanction  of  the  inspec- 
tor, and  under  arrangements  approved  by  him,  by  school 
journeys  or  rambles,  or  visits  paid  during  the  school  hours 
to  places  of  educational  value  or  interest ; 

"  (iii)  any  time  occupied  by  a  central  examination  (other 
than  for  labour  certificates)  attended  by  scholars  with  the 
sanction  of  the  inspector,  provided  that  the  time  allowed 
for  examination  be  not  less  than  one  hour  and  a  half ; 

"  (iv)  any  time  occupied  in  attending  at  a  training 
college  or  centre  for  pupil  teachers,  or  other  place  ap- 
proved by  the  Board,  for  the  purpose  of  model  or  criticism 
lessons  ; 

"  (v)  the  necessary  period  for  recreation.  The  period  for 
reaction,  in  the  case  of  infants  under  five  years  of  age, 
must  be  fifteen  minutes,  and  may  be  extended  to  half  an 
hour ;  and  in  the  case  of  scholars  over  five  years  of  age 
must  be  ten  minutes.  More  recreation  may  be  given,  but 
only  when  the  period  of  secular  instruction,  inclusive  of 
recreation,  is  prolonged  beyond  the  necessary  one  and  a  half 
or  two  hours ; 

"  (vi)  a  period  occupied  during  the  school  hours,  under 
arrangements  approved  by  the  Board,  in  properly  organised 
games  for  older  children  under  competent  supervision  and 
instruction.  The  period  so  occupied  must  be  confined  to 
one  morning  or  one  afternoon  in  each  week,  and  must  be 
not  less  than  half  an  hour  or  more  than  two  continuous 
hours,  exclusive  of  the  time,  if  any,  spent  in  going  to 
or  returning  from  the  playing  field  ; 

"  (vii)  any  time  spent  during  the  ordinary  school  term 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  309 

under  arrangements  and  according  to  a  time-table  ap- 
proved by  the  Board  at  an  open-air  school,  school  camp, 
or  other  place  selected  with  a  view  to  an  improvement  of 
the  health  and  physical  condition  of  the  children.  The 
Board  may  at  any  time  require  the  local  education 
authority  to  furnish  them  with  a  special  report  by  the 
school  medical  officer  on  the  working  and  effect  of  any 
arrangements  made  under  this  Article.  For  the  purposes 
of  this  Code  '  school  medical  officer '  means  a  medical 
officer  named  by  the  local  education  authority,  and  recog- 
nised as  such  by  the  Board.  In  exceptional  cases  the 
Board  will  recognise  separate  school  medical  officers  for 
separate  parts  of  one  area ; 

"  (viii)  any  period  occupied  by  a  medical  inspection  of 
scholars  conducted  by  or  under  the  authority  of  the  local 
education  authority  in  pursuance  of  the  requirements  of 
Section  13  of  the  Education  (Administrative  Provisions) 
Act,  1907,  whether  such  inspection  is  conducted  in  the 
school  premises  or  (in  special  circumstances)  in  some  other 
place  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the  local  education 
authority  with  the  approval  of  the  Board. 

"  The  school,  department,  or  infants'  division  must  have 
met  not  less  than  400  times  in  the  school  year."1 

The  admission  and  daily  attendance  of  the  scholars  must 
be  carefully  registered  by,  or  under  the  supervision  of  the 
head  teacher,  and  must  be  duly  verified  from  time  to  time 
— at  least  quarterly — by  the  managers  or  some  responsible 
officer  appointed  by  the  local  education  authority. 

General  Rules  for  the  use  of  Registers. 

1.  "  The  names  of  the  school,  of  the  department,  and,  in 
the  case  of   attendance  registers,  of   the  class,  must  be 

1  There  are  three  exceptions  to  this  rule.     See  Art.  45. 


310  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

distinctly  written  on  the  cover  of  each  register,  and  on  the 
title-page  there  must  be  the  signature  of  the  correspondent 
and  tli e  date  on  which  it  was  issued  to  the  teacher. 

2.  "The  pages  of  all  registers  must  be  numbered  con- 
secutively, no  leaf  must  be  inserted  in  or  withdrawn  from 
any  register,  and  no  blank  spaces  should  be  left  between 
the  entries. 

3.  "  Entries  must  be  original  and  not  copies,  and  must  be 
made  in  ink  without  erasure  or  insertion. 

"If  it  is  necessary  to  make  any  correction  this  should 
be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  original  entry  and  the 
alteration  made  are  both  clear  on  the  face  of  the  record. 

"  During  any  time  in  which  school  registers  are  with  the 
Board  for  inspection,  under  Article  48,  the  record  of  atten- 
dances made  by  each  scholar  must  be  kept  in  a  temporary 
register,  and  the  totals  of  such  attendances  must  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  original  registers  as  soon  as  these  are  returned 
by  the  Board.     The  temporary  register  must  be  preserved. 

4.  "  Eegisters  should  be  kept  for  ten  years  after  they 
have  been  filled. 

"  The  head  teacher  of  a  school  or  department  is  held 
responsible  for  the  proper  keeping  and  preservation  of  the 
records  of  that  school  or  department,  and  should  not  dele- 
gate to  a  subordinate  any  part  of  this  work  except  the 
keeping  of  attendance  registers. 

"  Pupil  teachers  of  the  first  year  may  not  be  employed 
in  registration,  other  pupil  teachers  may  register  the 
attendances  of  their  own  classes." 

Special  Rules  for  Admissio7i  Register. 

1.  "An  entry  should  be  made  in  the  admission  register 
for  each  scholar  on  his  admission  to  the  school.  No  name 
should  be  removed  until  the  child  is  exempt  from  the  legal 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  311 

obligation  to  attend  school,  unless  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  he  or  she  is  dead,  is  attending  another  school,  or  has 
left  the  neighbourhood.  If  no  information  is  obtainable 
the  name  may  be  removed  after  a  continuous  absence  of 
four  weeks. 

2.  "  Successive  numbers  must  be  allotted  to  the  scholars 
on  their  admission  so  that  each  may  have  his  own  number, 
which  he  should  retain  throughout  his  career  in  the  school 
or  department.  This  number  will  then  serve  to  identify 
him. 

"  When  any  scholar  whose  name  has  been  removed  from 
the  register  is  readmitted,  a  new  entry  must  be  made,  but 
the  scholar  should  resume  his  old  number  and  cross  refer- 
ence should  be  made  to  the  entries. 

3.  "  This  register  must  show  distinctly  for  each  scholar 
who  has  actually  been  present  in  the  school — 

(a)  His  number  on  the  register. 

(b)  The  date  of  his  admission  (and  re-admission) — 

day,  month,  and  year. 

(c)  His  name  in  full. 

(d)  The  name  and  address  of  his  parent  or  guardian. 

(e)  Whether  exemption  from  religious  instruction  or 

from  attendance  at  the  school  during  the  time 
of  religious  instruction,  where  the  bye-laws 
permit  this,  is  claimed  on  his  behalf. 

(/)  The  exact  date — day,  month,  and  year — of  his 
birth. 

(g)  The  last  school  he  attended  before  entering  this 
school.  If  this  is  his  first  school,  the  word 
'  none '  should  be  entered  in  this  column. 

(h)  If  he  has  left,  the  date  of  his  last  attendance  at 
this  school  and  the  cause  of  his  leaving. 

4.  "  This  register  should  have  an  alphabetical  index." 


312  SCHOOL   ORGANISATION. 

Rules  as  to  the  Provision  of  Attendance  Registers. 

1.  "In  each,  school  or  department  in  which  both  infants 
and  other  scholars  are  taught  there  must  be  separate  sets 
of  attendance  registers  kept  for  each,  and  no  attendances 
may  be  transferred  from  one  to  the  other.1 

2.  "  For  each  class  in  a  school  or  department  there  should 
be  a  separate  attendance  register,  containing  the  names  of 
all  children  in  the  class,  including  partial  exemption 
scholars,  if  any. 

3.  "  Each  class  containing  children  above  and  below  the 
age  of  five  years  must  have  two  registers,  one  for  those 
above,  the  other  for  those  below  that  age,  and  similarly  for 
classes  containing  scholars  above  and  below  the  age  of 
fifteen  years. 

"  The  name  of  a  child  must  be  transferred  from  one  of 
these  to  the  other  not  later  than  the  end  of  the  week  in 
which  he  attains  his  fifth  birthday." 

Registers  for  Special  Classes. 

For  any  class  in  a  subject  for  which  a  special  grant  is 
paid  under  the  Code,  or  for  any  class  in  the  ordinary 
subjects  held  in  accordance  with  the  time-table  elsewhere 
than  at  the  school,  there  must  be  a  special  register. 

In  these  registers  the  dates  of  meetings  and  the  times 
during  which  the  scholar  is  under  instruction  at  the  meet- 
ings must  be  accurately  shown. 

The  special  classes  refer  to  instruction  in  cookery, 
laundry,  housewifery,  combined  domestic  subjects,  dairy 
work,  gardening,  and  handicrafts,2  which  are  usually  but 
not  necessarily  taught  at  centres. 

1  See  Art.  31.  2  See  Arts.  34  and  44  (a),  also  Schedule  III. 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  313 

Special  Rules  for  Attendance  Registers. 

1.  "There  must  be  columns  for  the  admission  numbers 
and  names  of  the  scholars,  both  of  which  must  invariably 
be  entered  at  the  same  time. 

"  There  must  be  a  column  for  the  attendances  at  each 
meeting  in  the  school  year.  Each  of  these  columns  should 
be  properly  dated  before  any  entry  of  attendance  or 
absence  is  made  in  it.  The  columns  must  be  grouped  in 
weeks,  and  at  the  foot  of  each  there  must  be  spaces  for 
entering  the  total  number  of  children  present  when  the 
registers  are  marked  for  the  last  time,  and  the  total  num- 
ber withdrawn  before  completing  an  attendance. 

"  There  must  be  spaces  for  recording  the  total  atten- 
dances in  the  quarter  or  term  made  by  each  child. 

2.  "If  school  fees  are  entered  in  the  register,  they  should 
be  kept  quite  separate  from  the  entries  of  attendances ;  the 
best  place  will  be  the  extreme  left  of  the  page  before  the 
names  of  the  scholars. 

3.  "The  approved  time-table  must  provide  adequate 
time  at  each  meeting  of  the  school  for  marking  the  regis- 
ters, and  this  time  must  end  before  the  commencement  of 
the  minimum  time  constituting  an  attendance. 

"  The  attendance  registers  should  be  marked  for  the  first 
time  as  soon  as  the  school  or  department  is  open  according 
to  the  time-table.  No  instruction  received  by  a  scholar 
before  the  register  is  marked  for  the  last  time  may  be 
reckoned  towards  the  minimum  amount  of  secular  instruc- 
tion required  in  order  that  an  attendance  for  the  purposes 
of  grants  under  the  Code  may  be  counted. 

u  The  marking  of  the  registers  for  the  afternoon  meeting 
may  not  commence  within  an  hour  of  the  close  of  the 
morning  meeting,  except  on  occasions  for  which  the  special 
sanction  of  the  Board  has  been  given  to  a  shorter  interval. 


314  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

This  proceeding  is  very  undesirable,  but  special  cases  may 
occur,  such  as  those  of  country  schools  in  the  North  during 
the  winter,  where  there  is  good  reason  for  making  the 
afternoon  meeting  of  the  school  follow  the  morning  meet- 
ing after  a  short  interval. 

4.  "  During  the  time  set  apart  for  registration  at  every 
meeting  of  the  school — 

Every  scholar  whose  name  has  been  entered  in  and 
not  removed  from  the  admission  register  must  be 
marked  \  (present)  or  f^\  (absent). 

Before  the  completion  of  the  time  set  apart  for 
registration  the  number  of  scholars  marked  present 
must  be  entered  in  the  space  provided,  and  to  ensure 
accuracy  a  count  of  those  actually  present  should  be 
made  before  the  number  is  recorded. 

5.  "  During  the  minimum  time  constituting  an  attend- 
ance— 

The  mark  of  presence  of  any  scholar  who  leaves 
before  completing  an  attendance  must  be  cancelled  at 
once  by  drawing  a  ring  round  it  thus,  f\\. 

But  this  need  not  be  done  in  the  case  of  a  scholar 
leaving  the  school  for  instruction  in  a  special  class 
held  outside  the  school,  unless  it  is  subsequently 
ascertained  that  such  scholar  has  not  completed  the 
minimum  time  constituting  an  attendance. 

The  number  of  the  scholars  whose  marks  of  attend- 
ance have  been  cancelled  must  be  entered  in  the  space 
provided,  before  the  end  of  the  meeting. 

6.  "  Any  scholar  marked  absent  at  any  meeting  who 
is  found — when  the  registers  of  a  central  class  for  cookery, 
drawing,  science,  etc.,  or  the  registers  of  attendance  at 
museums  or  other  approved  places  are  examined — to 
have  received   at  the  time  of  that  meeting  at  least  two 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  315 

hours  of  secular  instruction  at  such  class  or  partly  at 
such  class  and  partly  at  the  school,  may  have  the  letter 
C,  D,  S,  M,  A,  etc.,  entered  inside  the  mark  of  absence, 
thus  f£\  f£\  r^\  (Jf)  r^\.     All   attendances    so   registered 

should  be  added  to  the  total  attendances  of  each  child 
concerned  at  some  time  not  later  than  the  end  of  the 
school  year. 

7.  "  When  a  child  is  excluded  from  the  school  by  reason 
of  a  requirement  under  Article  57  of  the  Code,  or  any 
provision  of  an  Act  of  Parliament,  or  under  the  authority 
of  the  School  Medical  Officer,  his  mark  of  absence  should 
be  entered  thus,  (x),  the  X  being  added  in  red  ink. 

"  At  every  meeting  at  which  a  scholar  is  employed  as 
a  Monitor,  he  must  be  marked  thus  (z).1 

8.  "  When  the  school  does  not  meet  on  an  occasion  for 
which  space  is  provided  in  the  registers,  this  space  must 
before  the  next  meeting  be  cancelled  by  one  or  more  lines 
being  plainly  drawn  through  it.  The  reason  why  the 
school  did  not  meet  should  always  appear  in  the  log-book. 
For  longer  periods  '  holiday  '  should  be  written  across 
the  column. 

9.  "  The  attendance  registers  must  be  marked  every  time 
the  school  meets,  however  small  the  attendance,  and  the 
meeting  must  be  counted  in  ascertaining  the  average 
attendance. 

N.B. — In  country  districts,  where  the  children  have 
to  come  from  some  distance  to  attend  school,  a 
meeting  of  the  school  may  occasionally  be  abandoned 
without  previous  notice  on  days  when,  owing  to 
inclement  weather,  the  attendance  is  so  small  as 
seriously  to  interfere  with  the  ordinary  working  of 
the  school. 

xArts.  11  (/)and43  (e). 


316  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

In  such  a  case,  the  children  who  reach  the  school  so 
wet  that  sitting  in  school  for  the  usual  school  hours 
is  likely  to  be  injurious  to  their  health,  should  be  sent 
home  at  once.  The  children  not  likely  to  be  injured 
by  remaining  for  the  usual  school  hours  may  be 
admitted  and  allowed  to  receive  instruction  without 
the  registers  being  marked  or  the  meeting  reckoned. 
Whenever  this  is  done,  an  entry  must  at  once  be  made 
on  the  register  to  the  effect  that  the  meeting  has  been 
abandoned,  full  particulars  of  the  circumstances  must 
be  entered  in  the  log-book,  and  a  record  should  be 
kept  of  the  numbers  sent  home  and  retained  in  school 
respectively." 


Rules  for  the  use  of  the  Partial  Exemption  Register. 

1.  "A  separate  register  must  be  provided  for  partial 
exemption  scholars.  The  name  of  no  scholar  should  be 
entered  in  this  unless  he  is  ascertained  to  be  a  partial 
exemption  scholar.1 

2.  "At  the  close  of  each  week,  the  number  of  the  two- 
hour  attendances  made  by  each  of  the  partial  exemp- 
tion scholars  during  the  week  must  be  ascertained  from 
the  class  registers  and  posted  in  the  partial  exemption 
register. 

3.  "  At  the  end  of  the  year  a  list  must  be  drawn  up  and 
signed  on  behalf  of  the  Local  Education  Authority,  certi- 
fying (a)  the  number  of  two-hour  attendances  made  by 
each  partial  exemption  scholar,  (b)  the  addition  claimed  on 
his  behalf.     This  addition  may  not  exceed — 

(i)   One-half  of  the  two-hour  attendances  made  by  the 
scholar  during  the  year  or  that  portion  of  the  year 

1  Art.  43. 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  317 

during  which  he  has  been  a  partial  exemption 
scholar ;  nor 
(ii)  Such  a  number  as,  when  added  to  the  number  of  his 
two-hour  attendances  during  the  year  or  that 
portion  of  the  year  during  which  he  has  been  a 
partial  exemption  scholar,  will  give  a  total  equal  to 
the  number  of  meetings  of  the  school  during  the 
same  period." 

Rules  as  to  the  Register  of  Summaries. 

1.  "  All  entries  in  the  register  of  summaries,  whether  for 
a  class  or  for  the  whole  department,  must  be  given 
separately  for  children  below  and  above  the  age  of  five 
years  and  for  those  below  and  above  fifteen  years  of  age. 

2.  "At  the  close  of  each  week  or  part  of  the  week  during 
which  the  school  has  been  open  the  following  entries  must 
be  made  in  the  register  of  summaries  in  respect  of  that 
period — 

(1)  The  number  of  meetings  of  each  department. 

(2)  The  total  attendances  of  each  class. 

(3)  The  total  attendances  of  each  department. 

(4)  The  average  attendance  of  each  department. 

(5)  The   highest   number   on    the    roll    during    the 
week. 

3.  "  At  the  end  of  the  school  year  the  average  attend- 
ance for  the  year  should  be  ascertained  for  each  section  of 
a  school  or  department  for  which  a  separate  grant  on 
average  attendance  is  payable,  by  dividing  the  total  attend- 
ances made  in  that  year  by  the  number  of  meetings  of  the 
corresponding  section  of  the  school  or  department.  The 
average  attendance  for  children  below  and  above  the  age 
of  five  years  must  be  separately  ascertained. 


318  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

4.  "  The  average  attendance  of  scholars  above  tlie  age  of 
fifteen  years  must  be  separately  ascertained  for  the  pur- 
poses of  grant,  since  no  fee  grant  is  payable  in  respect  of 
scholars  over  fifteen  years  of  age. 

5.  "  An  entry  must  be  made  in  the  register  of  summaries 
of  the  classification  of  the  children  of  each  sex  according  to 
their  ages  on  the  last  day  of  the  school  year." 

Verification  of  the  Registers. 

1.  "The  Managers  are  held  responsible  for  the  super- 
vision and  effective  verification  of  the  registration,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  school  year  are  required  to  certify — 

(1)  that  the  registers  have  been  accurately  kept  in 

accordance  with  the  rules  of  this  schedule ;  and 

(2)  that  the  accuracy  of  the  registers  has  been  tested 

by  the  managers  on  several  occasions  and  the 
result  recorded  in  the  log  book. 

2.  "In  order  to  be  able  to  give  this  certificate  and 
properly  to  check  the  registration,  Managers  are  expected 
to  visit  the  school  without  notice,  at  least  once  in  a  quarter, 
at  some  time  during  the  period  of  secular  instruction 
required  in  order  that  an  attendance  may  be  counted  for 
grant,  so  that  they  may  see  that  the  registers  have  been 
properly  marked  and  closed  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  Code  and  of  this  Schedule. 

3.  "  In  the  case  of  a  school  which,  under  Section  6  of 
the  Education  Act,  1902,  has  no  Managers,  a  responsible 
onicer  appointed  by  the  Local  Education  Authority  must 
discharge  the  duties  named  in  Rules  1  and  2." 

Reference  facilities  will  be  increased  by  entering  the 
surnames  first  on  the  class  and  admission  registers.  In 
the  case  of  the  class  registers  it  is  best,  too,  to  arrange  the 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION. 


319 


names  in  alphabetical  order.  The  greatest  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  these  registers  are  closed  to  time,  and 
that  the  total  number  at  the  foot  of  the  column  corre- 
sponds with  the  number  of  children  present.  It  is  usual 
to  indicate  a  punctual  attendance  by  a  red  mark  and  a 
late  attendance  by  a  black  one.  In  lieu  of  having  the 
class  registers  divided  into  four  quarters,  it  is  thought 
that  a  three  term  division  would  be  a  more  convenient 
arrangement.  Such  registers  are  being  introduced  in 
some  districts.  Class  registers  should  be  preserved  "  at 
least  ten  years." 

Admission  and  summary  registers  "  must  never  be 
destroyed."  The  kind  of  information  to  be  obtained  from 
the  summary  will  be  seen  from  the  tabulated  forms  below. 


Weekly  Records. 


Class  or 
Standard. 

Roll. 

Tutal 
Attend  .nces. 

Per- 
centage. 

Under 
15. 

Over 

15. 

Under 
15. 

Over 

15. 

Totals 

Week 

No.  present 
every 

ended 

morning 

and 
afternoon. 

Mon.    M. 

A. 

Tues.  M. 

A. 

Wed.  M. 

A. 

Thur.  M. 

A. 

Fri.      M. 

A. 

320 


SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 


Quarterly  Records  (for  the  whole  School  or  Department). 


Week  ended. 

No.  of  times  open. 

No.  on  Roll. 

Total  Attendances. 

M. 

A. 

Under  15. 

Over  15. 

Under  15. 

Over  15. 

Totals  or  Averages 
for  the  Quarter. 

N.B. — Both  the  Weekly  and  Quarterly  Records  vary  slightly  for  Infant 
Schools.  The  variation  consists  mainly  in  the  substitution  under  Roll  and 
Total  Attendances  of  "over  3  and  under  5"  and  "over  5  and  under  15"  for 
"  under  15    and  "  over  15  "  respectively. 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION. 


321 


The  yearly  records  include  the  following  and  also  a 
table  similar  to  that  containing  the  quarterly  records,  in 
which  the  corresponding  numbers  for  the  four  quarters 
are  set  out  and  summarised  in  order  to  give  the  annual 
figures. 


Years  of  age. 

Nos. 

No.    of     scholars 

Nos. 

3  and  under  4 

4    ,,        ,,      5 

admitted  during 

5    „        "2 

the  year    

Total  number 

6    ,,        ,,7 

of  children 

7    ,,        ,,8 

No.    of     scholars 

on  admission 

8    „        „      9 

left    during    the 

register   on  i 

9    „        ,,    10 

year 

last  day  of 

10    „        „    11 

school  year. 

11  ■„        „    12 

12  „        „    13 

13  „         ,,    14 

14  „        „    15 
v  15  and  over 

Average     attend- 
ances for  year . . . 

Etc. 

Total 

Bye-law  Returns. — Bye-law  returns  have,  as  a  rule, 
to  be  made  by  teachers  weekly,  annually,  and  occasionally. 
The  weekly  returns  usually  consist  of  the  attendances  of 
each  scholar  made  on  a  form  which  is  a  "  duplicate  "  of  the 
class  register.  In  some  areas,  however,  the  "  slip  "  system 
has  been  introduced  with  great  success.  In  this  system, 
each  scholar's  name  is  entered  on  a  separate  "  slip "  of 
paper,  whereon  his  attendances  for  a  quarter  or  term  are 
recorded  week  by  week. 

The  annual  return  is  of  a  more  elaborate  character  and 
takes  the  form  of  a  summary  of  attendances  of  the  year 
for  each  department,  chiefly  based  upon  the  ages  and 
s.  o.  23 


322  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

classification  of  the  children.  Occasional  returns  sometimes 
refer  to  individual  scholars  whose  parents  are  about  to  be 
summoned  before  a  magistrate  for  irregularity  of  attend- 
ance. 

Records  of  School  Progress. — Records  of  school  pro- 
gress during  the  educational  year  are  necessary  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  local 
education  authorities.  To  secure  completeness  in  these 
records,  it  is  desirable  to  furnish  each  class  with  three 
books :  (1)  the  progress  and  report  book,  printed  forms  of 
which  can  be  obtained  from  most  educational  publishers ; 
(2)  an  ordinary  exercise  book  for  the  teacher  to  record 
briefly  the  work  done  week  by  week ;  (3)  the  teacher's 
note-book,  intended  mainly  for  such  memoranda  as  in- 
volve due  preparation  of  lessons. 

Most  progress  and  report  books  are  framed  on  the  basis 
of  half-yearly  or  term  examinations  by  the  head  teacher. 
Assuming  that  periodical  examinations  are  held,  then 
the  book  should  contain: — (1)  For  each  term  or  period 
and  each  subject  of  instruction,  a  brief  resume  of  the 
work  proposed  to  be  done,  together  with  a  space  for 
the  head  teacher's  criticisms.  (2)  A  further  space  in 
which  the  head  teacher  can  at  the  end  of  a  given  period 
summarise  the  value  of  the  work  and  the  conduct  of  the 
class  as  a  whole  under  such  general  headings  as  (a)  in- 
struction, (6)  discipline,  (c)  punctual  and  regular  attend- 
ance. (3)  An  individual  schedule  of  the  scholars,  on 
which  may  be  shown  the  progress  of  each  pupil  in  the 
various  subjects  that  constitute  the  curriculum.  (4)  Blank 
sheets  on  which  may  be  recorded  the  tests  given  at  the 
examinations,  and  also  the  proposed  syllabuses  for  the 
year. 

It  is  evident  that  syllabuses  ought  to  be  carefully  pre- 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  323 

pared  before  the  commencement  of  the  year  in  which  they 
are  to  be  put  into  operation.  They  should,  as  a  rule,  be 
graded  into  three  courses  and  made  to  overlap  to  some 
considerable  extent.  Above  all,  each  syllabus  should  be 
so  elastic  as  to  adjust  itself  to  the  needs  of  the  class  from 
time  to  time.  The  head  teacher's  criticisms  should  be 
reasonably  exhaustive,  and  aim  at  being  especially  helpful 
to  the  class  teacher. 

The  progress  book  should  only  be  used  for  the  first 
class  in  an  infant  school  and  might  well  take  a  more 
general  form  than  that  indicated  here. 

The  Child's  Book. — Many  years  ago  the  Board  of 
Education  instituted  a  "  child's  book,"  which  contained 
most  of  the  information  now  recorded  in  the  admission 
register  in  connection  with  each  scholar's  name.  This 
book  was  intended  to  be  a  complete  record  of  the  child's 
educational  progress,  and  practically  to  become,  when  the 
time  arrived,  his  leaving  certificate.  The  "  child's  book  '; 
was,  however,  abandoned  after  a  short  trial.  Some  simple 
form  of  certificate  similar  to  this  seems  desirable.  In  the 
French  schools  '  a  book  of  this  kind  exists,  for  each  scholar 
enrolled  in  a  primary  school  receives  a  caJiier  de  devoirs 
mensuels,  or  exercise  book,  in  which  he  records  the  first 
lesson  of  each  month  during  his  school  life.  This  has  to 
be  done  entirely  without  aid.  The  purpose  of  this  book  is 
indicated  thus  in  an  official  circular :  "  Une  chose  importe, 
et  c'est  la  seule :  qu'il  existe  dans  toute  ecole  et  pour  tout 
enfant  sans  exception  un  cahier  garde  avec  soin,  qui,  d'une 
maniere,  ou  d'une  autre,  et  par  un  nombre  suffisant  de 
specimens  empruntes  aux  diverses  epoques  de  sa  scolarite, 
puisse  fournir  au  bout  de  quelques  annees    une   preuve 

1  See  "Rural  Education  in  France,"  by  J.  C.  Medd,  Special 
Reports,  Vol.  7. 


324  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

irrecusable  de  la  regularity  de  ses  etudes  et  la  trace  de  sa 
propre  assiduite  ou  de  ses  absences." 

P.  T.  and  S.  T.  Records. — It  is  now  essential  to  keep 
records  of  the  work  done  by  student  teachers  and  pupil 
teachers  in  the  day  schools.  These  records  should  briefly 
indicate  for  each  session  the  time  spent  (1)  in  criticism 
lessons,  naming  the  classes  or  standards  in  which  such 
lessons  were  given ;  (2)  in  work  other  than  actual  teaching 
— the  kind  of  work  to  be  named  and  the  class  or  standard 
with  which  it  was  associated ;  (3)  in  actual  charge  of  a 
class  or  section,  the  size  and  grade  of  the  class  being  given ; 
(4)  in  work  done  in  combination  with  the  class  teacher. 
The  conduct  and  progress  of  the  pupil  or  student  teacher 
should  be  summed  up  by  the  head  teacher  at  the  close 
of  each  quarter  or  term. 

Records  should  be  entered  in  a  journal  kept  entirely 
for  that  purpose — one  journal  for  each  pupil  or  student- 
teacher. 

Medical  Inspection  and  Records. — In  Germany  the 
school  doctor  has  become  a  recognised  institution.  All 
primary  schools  are  subjected  to  periodical  medical  inspec- 
tion. The  doctor's  duties  vary  a  little  according  to  district, 
but,  generalised,  they  may  be  said  to  be  : — 

(1)  To  examine  every  scholar  as  to  condition  of  health 

and  to  take  his  weight,  height,  chest,  and  other 
measurements. 

(2)  To  deal  promptly  with   any  suspectel    cases  or 

conditions  which  concern  the  health  of  indi- 
vidual children  or  the  school  as  a  whole. 

(3)  To  examine  periodically  the  school  buildings  and 

report  on  any  hygienic  defects. 

(4)  To  examine  children  proposed  for  the  special  or 

defective  schools. 


SCHOOL  RECORDS  AND  REGISTRATION.       325 

In  the  Charlottenburg  schools  scholars  are  medically 
classed  as  "  under  control "  and  "  normal,"  the  former 
being  examined  periodically  by  the  doctor,  and  anthropo- 
metric figures  duly  recorded.  The  resulting  health  schedules 
are  carefully  preserved. 

In  America  child  study  departments,  in  which  anthropo- 
metric statistics  are  collected  and  tabulated,  have  been 
established  at  some  large  centres.  A  similar  system  of 
weighing  and  measuring  children  has  been  adopted  by  a 
branch  of  the  Child  Study  Association  at  Liverpool. 
Sir  James  Crichton  Browne,  M.D.,  urged  in  1884  "  the 
systematic  measurement  of  the  children  in  all  elemen- 
tary schools "  as  supplying  "  information  of  the  highest 
practical  and  scientific  value."1 

Under  Section  (13)  of  the  Education  (Administrative 
Provisions)  Act,  1907,  the  powers  and  duties  of  a  local 
education  authority  under  Part  III.  of  the  Education  Act, 
1902,  shall  include  the  duty  to  provide  for  the  medical 
inspection  of  children  immediately  before  or  at  the  time  of 
or  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  admission  to  a  public 
elementary  school,  and  on  such  other  occasions  as  the 
Board  of  Education  direct,  and  the  power  to  make  such 
arrangements  as  may  be  sanctioned  by  the  Board  of 
Education  for  attending  to  the  health  and  physical  condi- 
tion of  the  children  educated  in  public  elementary  schools ; 2 
provided  that  in  any  exercise  of  powers  under  this  section, 

1  See  Over-pressure  in  Elementary  Schools,  1884,  and  Report  of 
the  Third  International  Congress  for  the  Welfare  and  Protection 
of  Children,  1902. 

2  The  Board  must  be  satisfied  that  provision  has  been  made  for 
the  medical  inspection  of  all  children  admitted  to  the  school  in  the 
year,  and  of  all  children  who  are  expected  to  leave  school  in  the 
year — the  year  in  each  case  being  the  twelve  months  ending  on 
the  31st  of  July. — Minute  of  the  Board  of  Education,  June  25th, 
1910.     See  also  Circulars  576,  582,  and  596. 


326  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  local  education  authority  may  encourage  and  assist  the 
establishment  or  continuance  of  voluntary  agencies,  and 
associate  with  itself  representatives  of  voluntary  associa- 
tions for  the  purpose. 

"  There  are  two  distinct  purposes  in  medical  inspection. 
The  children  may  be  inspected  in  great  detail  twice,  thrice, 
or  more  often  in  their  school  life.  This  method  is  costly 
in  time,  and  scarcely  likely  to  be  fully  appreciated  in  the 
results  obtained.  Thoroughly  done,  it  would  be  of  great 
value  to  the  community,  but  from  this  point  of  view 
equally  good  results  can  be  obtained,  for  one-twentieth 
of  the  work  done,  by  random  sampling.  It  is,  for  instance, 
quite  unnecessary  to  weigh  and  measure  all  children  ;  only 
very  undersized  or  debilitated  children  need  be  weighed, 
and  children  who  are  not  doing  their  school  work  well 
might  have  weights  regularly  noted ;  but  for  statistical 
purposes  or  social  investigation,  weighing  and  measuring 
need  only  be  done  in  cases  where  an  intensive  study  of  the 
children  is  taking  place,  and  in  these  cases  as  full  and 
accurate  notes  as  possible  should  be  made.  It  is  necessary 
to  work  with  smaller  numbers  and  more  accurate  returns, 
and  this  might  well  be  confined  to  the  work  of  the  sixteen 
school  doctors.  For  the  majority  of  children  there  is  little 
value,  practically,  in  all  the  details  of  medical  inspection 
as  usually  and  fully  set  out ;  the  purpose  is  to  ascertain 
present  conditions  which  require  remedy,  and  for  the 
majority  the  sole  purpose  should  be  noting  conditions 
which  require  medical  or  educational  treatment.  The 
work  of  the  assistant  school  doctors  should  be  directed  to 
this,  and  all  other  observations,  unless  for  the  doctor's 
own  satisfaction,  might  be  omitted.  The  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  the  work  would  be  very  considerable,  and  the 
practical  results  equally  good."1 

1  See  Report  of  L.C.C.  Medical  Officer  (Education),  1910. 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  327 

Ophthalmic  Records. — It  lias  been  the  practice  in 
many  educational  areas  for  the  teacher  annually  to  test 
the  eyesight  of  the  scholars  by  means  of  charts  supplied 
for  that  purpose.  The  records  of  these  tests  are  preserved 
and  entered  on  the  class  registers ;  the  scholars  are 
arranged  in  the  class  accordingly ;  and  the  oculist  supple- 
ments the  teacher's  investigations  in  all  cases  in  which  the 
vision  is  defective,  and  sends  "  advice  cards  "  to  the  parents. 
Serious  defects  in  vision  are  often  caused  by  the  habitual 
insufficiency  of  the  distance  of  the  scholar's  eye  from  his 
work.  From  five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  children  in  public 
elementary  schools  suffer  from  defective  vision.  Nervous- 
ness, headaches,  and  premature  fatigue  are  the  result  in  the 
absence  of  remedial  measures. 

Aural  Records. — By  investigation1  it  has  been  found 
that  from  thirteen  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  children  suffer 
from  defective  hearing  in  one  or  both  ears.  Mouth 
breathing,  a  heavy  look,  variable  powers  of  hearing, 
general  dulness,  inattention,  and  variable  intelligence  are 
the  usual  symptoms  of  deafness.  In  minor  cases  deafness 
becomes  accentuated  by  a  cold,  and  varies  in  degree  from 
other  causes  according  to  the  general  health.  In  instances 
like  these,  and  also  in  the  case  of  deafness  in  one  ear  only, 
defective  hearing  becomes  difficult  to  detect  by  the  teacher. 
Great  vigilance  and  care  are  therefore  necessary,  for  the 
moral  effect  of  condemning  children  for  disobedience  or 
inattention  when  these  are  the  natural  outcome  of  sensory 
defect,  temporary  or  permanent,  is  too  evident  to  be 
named.  Scholars  apparently  hopelessly  dull  and  inatten- 
tive have  been  found,  when  the  causes  of  deafness  have 
been  removed,  to  be  very  intelligent  and  obedient.  It  is 
desirable  that  the  teacher  should  be  ever  watchful   for 

1  See  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  by  E.  A.  Kirkpatriek,  1904. 


328  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

defects  of  this  kind  and  keep  records  of  his  observations. 
A  periodical  system  of  testing  aural  and  other  physical 
defects,  by  medical  men,  must  now  be  put  into  operation 
by  each  education  authority ;  but  this  should  not  lessen 
the  teacher's  care  and  watchfulness  in  all  such  matters. 

Defectives'  Hecords. — A  form  similar  to  that  on  the 
next  page,  signed  by  the  teacher  of  the  ordinary  school 
which  the  child  has  been  attending,  has  been  found  useful 
as  the  basis  of  records  by  the  "  special "  teacher  and  of 
enquiry  by  the  Medical  Officer. 

Thermometric  Records. — Every  central  hall  and  each 
class-room  should  be  supplied  with  a  thermometer  and  the 
temperature  taken  and  recorded  at  least  twice  a  day.  The 
best  times  for  taking  the  temperature  are  considered  to  be 
at  9  a.m.  and  3.30  p.m.  The  temperature  external  to  the 
school  should  also  be  recorded  by  means  of  a  thermometer 
facing  North.  It  is  well  for  these  records  to  take  the  form 
of  a  quarterly  chart,  which  should  be  hung  in  a  conspicu- 
ous position  on  the  class-room  walls.  In  case  of  consistent 
insufficiency  of  warmth,  the  defect  should  be  reported  at 
once  to  the  local  authority.  The  temperature  of  a  class- 
room should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  below  55°  at  9  a.m. 

Board  of  Education  Regulations  re  School  Records. 

— "  Every  school  must  have  : — 

(a)  "  A  diary  or  log  book  which  should  be  a  bare  record 
of  the  events  which  constitute  the  history  of  the  school. 

1 '  The  log  book  should  be  stoutly  bound  and  contain  not  less  than 
300  ruled  pages.  It  must  be  kept  at  the  school  under  the  care  of  the 
head  teacher,  who  should  enter  in  it,  from  time  to  time,  such  events 
as  the  introduction  of  new  books,  apparatus,  or  courses  of  instruction, 
any  plan  of  lessons  approved  by  the  Board,  the  visits  of  managers, 
absence,  illness,  or  failure  of  duty  on  the  part  of  any  of  the  school 
staff,  or  any  special  circumstance  affecting  the  school  that  may,  for 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION. 


329 


Defectives.  — Admission  Form.  x 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


9. 


Name  of  child 

Address  in  full 

Date  of  birth 

How  long  has  the  child  at- 
tended 

(a)  this  School  ? 

(/>)  any  other  School  ? 

What  is  the  appearance  of  the 
child  —  Stupid  or  bright  ? 

Is  the  child  :  1.  Obedient ;  2. 
Mischievous  ;  3.  Spiteful  ? 

Are  the  habits  of  the  child 
correct  and  cleanly  ? 

Are  the  propensities  of  the 
child  peculiar  or  dangerous  ? 

What  is  the  mental  capacity 
of  the  child  ? 

1.  Observation. 

2.  Imitation. 

3.  Attention. 

4.  Memory. 

5.  Reading     (equal     to 

Standard      ). 

6.  Writing     (equal     to 

Standard      ). 

7.  Calculation  (equal  to 

Standard      ). 

8.  Colour. 

9.  Special  tastes. 

10.  Is  the  child  affectionate  or 

otherwise  ? 

11.  Has  the  child  any  moral  sense? 

12.  Have  you  any  other  informa- 

tion bearing  on  the  case  ? 


Signed- 
School- 


Department_ 
Date 


[Children  under  seven  should  not,  as  a  ride,  be  nominated 
for  admission  to  a  Special  School.] 

1  In  use  in  London  (under  the  L.C.C. ).     There  is  another  simpler 
form  in  use  for  those  defective  other  than  mentally. 


330  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

the  sake  of  future  reference  or  for  any  other  reason,  deserve  to  be 
recorded.  It  should  contain  statements  of  fact  only  and  no  expres- 
sions of  opinion  on  conduct  or  as  to  the  efficiency  of  the  school, 
except  as  provided  by  Art.  23. 

"  Entries  in  the  log  book  should  be  made  by  the  head  teacher  as 
occasion  may  require.  Entries  should  be  made  only  by  the  head 
teacher,  by  the  correspondent,  by  the  managers  who  check  the 
registers  or  by  the  officer  (if  any)  authorised  by  the  Local  Education 
Authority. 

"  The  log  book  should  contain  an  explanation  of  the  reason  for  the 
closing  of  the  school  on  all  occasions  on  which  it  is  closed.  It  should 
also  contain  an  account  of  all  important  variations  in  the  attendance, 
and  all  deviations  from  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  school." 

(b)  A  book  for  recording  minutes  of  managers'  meetings. 

(c)  A  portfolio  to  contain  official  letters. 

(d)  The  Code  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  force  for  the 
time  being. 

(e)  A  punishment  book  in  which  all  cases  of  corporal 
punishment  must  be  recorded. 

School  Conference  Records. — It  is  desirable  that  the 
minutes  of  all  School  Conferences  should  be  entered  in  a 
book  kept  for  that  purpose  within  a  few  days  of  each  meet- 
ing ;  and  when  these  Conferences  assume  inter-depart- 
mental form,  the  minutes,  as  soon  as  recorded,  should  be 
signed  by  the  head  teachers  concerned.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  minutes  should  be  of  a  purely  formal  character, 
but  sufficiently  wide,  in  the  absence  of  unanimity,  to  cover 
expressed  individual  opinions. 

The  Three  Years.  — For  purposes  of  records  and  other 
matters  there  are  three  different  years  associated  with 
every  school,  viz.  the  calendar  year,  for  certificates  of 
exemption  by  attendance  ;  the  school  year,  for  finance  and 
annual  returns  to  the  Board  of  Education ;  and  the 
educational  vear,  at  the  commencement  of  which  most  of 


SCHOOL    RECORDS    AND    REGISTRATION.  331 

the  great  changes  in  organisation  and  promotion  of  scholars 
are  made. 

There  are  three  cases  in  which  the  school  year  is  a 
national  fixture,  viz.  that  for  all  Higher  Elementary 
Schools,  for  "  Special  Subjects,"  and  for  Pupil  and 
Student  teachers.  In  each  instance  the  year  begins  on 
August  1st  and  terminates  on  July  31st. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


"  Natural  things  and  spiritual — who  separates  these  two  .  .  .  deals 
ignorantly  with  men." — Aurora  Leigh. 

1 '  Training  is  everything.  The  peach  was  once  a  bitter  almond  ; 
cauliflower  is  nothing  but  a  cabbage  with  a  college  education." — 
Mark  Twain. 


THE    SCHOOL   IN   RELATION   TO   LOCAL 
ADMINISTRATION. 

Need  of  exceptional  treatment  of  children  in  two 
directions : — the  talented  scholar ;  the  defective  or 
backward  scholar. — The  classification  of  children  in 
school  departments  is  mainly  based  on  the  capabilities 
and  attainments  of  the  normal  scholar ;  but  every-day 
experience  points  to  the  desirability  or  necessity  of  differ- 
entiating him  from  the  talented  child  on  the  one  side,  and 
from  the  defective  scholar  on  the  other.  Defective  children 
may  be  defined  as  those  who  show  a  pronounced  inability 
to  learn  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of  school  life. 

Definite  and  extended  arrangements — extended,  that  is, 
beyond  the  regular  department — for  the  talented  child 
only  come  into  operation,  as  a  rule,  when  he  has  reached  one 
of  the  upper  classes  in  the  ordinary  school.  He  can  then 
generally  be  drafted  to  the  superior  primary  school  either 
by  examination  or  nomination,  according  to  the  practice  of 
the  district,  or,  through  the  agency  of  a  scholarship,  secure 
admission  to  a  secondary  school. 

332 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  333 

On  the  other  hand,  the  defective  scholar  needs  to  be 
specially  catered  for  in  the  earlier  stages  of  his  training. 
He  is  generally  so  far  behind  the  normal  child  in  both 
physical  and  mental  development  that  he  not  only  falls 
hopelessly  in  the  rear  when  educationally  associated  with 
children  of  average  power,  but  otherwise  suffers  because — 
to  use  a  Spencerian  phrase — he  is  altogether  out  of  corre- 
spondence with  ordinary  school  environment.  Moreover,  a 
feeble-minded  child  occasionally  displays  such  moral  de- 
pravity in  the  form  of  spitef  ulness,  cruelty  or  perverted 
affection  as  may  become  a  source  of  danger  to  others  unless 
watchfully  governed  and  supervised.  It  has  therefore 
been  considered  necessary,  both  in  the  child's  interests  and 
from  motives  of  State  policy,  to  make  special  provision  for 
his  education. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  about  one  per  cent,  of 
the  children  attending  elementary  schools  belongs  to  this 
defective  type.  The  interdependence  of  mental  power 
and  physical  development  is  now  generally  admitted, 
experience  showing  that  where  the  body  is  not  normally 
developed  there  is  a  corresponding  arrest  in  mental  de- 
velopment. In  the  same  way  it  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ment that  physical  superiority  in  childhood  gives  greater 
vital  capacity  and  mental  grip.  Moreover,  "  actual  tests 
of  the  memory  power  show  that  the  larger  and  stronger 
pupils  are  superior  in  native  force  of  memory  to  the  smaller 
and  weaker.  The  true  explanation  will  probably  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  those  conditions  which  bring  about  large 
growth  are  favourable  to  the  perfect  formation  and  ideal 
balance  of  the  brain  and  vital  organs."1 

Germany  was  the  pioneer  in  this  enterprise  of  special 
classes  for  defective  children.     The  late  Education  Autho- 

1  See  Child  Study  Report  No.  3  in  connection  with  the  Chicago 
Public  Schools. 


334  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

rity  for  London,  appreciating  the  value  of  the  unique 
training  in  the  Helfsschule,  was  the  first  in  this  country  to 
establish  similar  classes.  This  was  done  in  1892.  The 
movement  in  1899  received  State  recognition  by  the 
Defective  and  Epileptic  Children  Act,  and  led  the  way  to 
the  formation  of  such  classes  in  other  large  towns  of 
England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  broader  obligations  imposed  on 
education  authorities,  recently  created  by  the  Education 
Acts,  place  within  the  limits  of  their  power  and  adminis- 
tration, under  certain  conditions,  the  establishment  and 
supervision  of  secondary  schools  and  other  institutions  for 
higher  education,  which  have  long  needed  State  assistance 
and  recognition.  The  regulations1  issued  by  the  Board  of 
Education  must  materially  assist  in  putting  these  institu- 
tions on  a  sound  organised  and  progressive  basis.  Therein 
a  secondary  school  is  defined  as  "a  Day  or  Boarding  School 
which  offers  to  each  of  its  scholars,  up  to  and  beyond  the 
age  of  sixteen,  a  general  education,  physical,  mental,  and 
moral,  given  through  a  complete  graded  course  of  instruc- 
tion, of  wider  scope  and  more  advanced  degree  than  that 
given  in  Elementary  Schools."2 

The  wider  educational  range  of  district  and  departmental 
administration  should  ultimately  enable  the  local  authority 
to  co-ordinate  the  work  of  education  in  all  its  branches 
within  its  own  area — so  that  the  primary  may  meet  the 
secondary  school  at  the  right  point — that  the  passage  from 
one  to  the  other  may  not  be  rendered  unreasonably  difficult, 

1  These  further  state  that  the  instruction  must  cover  a  four  years' 
course,  beginning  at  an  age  not  exceeding  twelve.  These  age  limits, 
however,  do  not  apply  to  kindergartens  and  preparatory  depart- 
ments of  the  secondary  school. 

2  The  best  definition  of  a  Secondary  School  appears  in  the  Scotch 
Code. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  335 

and  that  the  earlier  struggles  of  ex-elementary  scholars  in 
the  secondary  school  may  not  be  so  arduous  as  to  dis- 
courage them  from  continuing  the  course.  This  can  prob- 
ably be  best  effected  by  the  "  accrediting  "  system  modified 
from  American  practice,  and  by  the  introduction  in  the 
higher  classes  of  the  elementary  school  of  some  of  the 
studies  that  are  taken  in  the  lower  forms  of  the  secondary 
school.  Examinations,  however,  are  in  this  country  the 
usual  tests  in  the  selection  of  scholars  for  secondary 
schools. 

The  American  Ladder. — The  golden  ladder  that 
enables  the  poorest  American  child  to  ascend  through  the 
various  educational  stages  and  finally  reach  the  university 
has  many  of  its  rungs  missing  in  most  parts  of  this 
country.  Those,  however,  who  ascend  the  ladder  here 
manage  to  negotiate  the  gaps,  which  act  as  deterrents  to 
many  young  aspirants. 

To  illustrate  the  American  ladder,  it  is  well  to  indicate 
roughly  the  various  steps  that  may  be  considered  to  be 
open  to  every  boy  and  girl  in  the  United  States : — 

(1)  The  kindergarten,  for  children  between  four  and  six 

years  of  age. 

(2)  The  elementary  school,  for  children  between  six  and 

fourteen  years  of  age. 

(3)  The   high   school,   for   those   between    fourteen    and 

eighteen  years  of  age. 

(4)  The  college  or  university,  for  persons  between  eighteen 

and  twenty- two  years  of  age. 

(5)  The  post-graduate  course  at  the  University,  for  persons 

between  twenty-two  and  twenty-six  years  of  age. 

The  kindergarten  schools  have  not  been  established 
many  years.  Attendance  at  them  is  generally  voluntary, 
but  the  demand  for  admission  is  so  great  that  buildings 


336  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

cannot  be  established  fast  enough  to  meet  it  adequately. 
It  may  be  said — though  the  compulsory  law  varies  in 
different  States — that,  as  a  rule,  the  elementary  school 
represents  the  only  compulsory  form  of  American  educa- 
tion, the  highest  upward  limit  of  age  being  sixteen  for 
enforced  attendance,  while  most  of  the  States  make  the 
upward  limit  fourteen. 

Having  "  graduated,"  or  passed  through  the  complete 
course  of  the  elementary  school,  the  American  child  may 
then  go  to  the  high  school  for  a  four  years'  course  of 
instruction,  which  is  usually  finished  at  the  age  of  eighteen 
or  nineteen,  though  he  may  remain  there,  as  a  rule,  until 
twenty-one  if  unable  to  complete  the  course  before.  Having 
finished  this  course  he  is  said  to  have  "  graduated  "  at  the 
high  school,  and  receives  a  certificate  to  that  effect.  He 
is  then  at  liberty  to  enter  college  and  obtain  an  academic 
degree,  which  is  usually  conferred,  not  on  the  results  of 
an  examination,  but  rather  on  the  student's  record  of 
successful  work  during  the  various  college  terms. 

The  post-graduate  course,  which  comprises  technical 
instruction  of  a  highly  specialised  character,  not  easily 
within  the  range  of  everyone,  is  taken  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  many  professional  schools  of  the  university. 
Some  students  take  this  course  between  the  ages  of  eighteen 
and  twenty-two,  when  the  ordinary  academic  course  has 
been  omitted. 

This,  then,  is  substantially  the  American  educational 
staircase  that  leads  to  the  hall  of  culture  and  to  profes- 
sional or  technical  skill.  The  ways  and  means  must  now 
be  briefly  recorded.  As  each  State  makes  its  own  laws,  there 
are  necessarily  some  variations  in  the  educational  system. 
Free  education  is,  however,  general  up  to  eighteen  years  of 
age.  In  some  States  it  is  free  up  to  twenty-one  years,  and 
even  practically  beyond  that.     Attendance  at  all  schools 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  337 

other  than  elementary  is  purely  voluntary ;  but  in  order  to 
go  forward  and  upward,  the  student  must  have  "  graduated  " 
or  completed  each  preceding  course.  Even  the  college  or 
university  training  is  free  in  the  Western  "  State"  univer- 
sities, and  nearly  free  elsewhere. 

Though  the  primary  schools  are  "end  on  "  to  the  high 
schools,  the  point  of  juncture  is  not  quite  satisfactory  to 
the  Americans  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  high  schools  and  the  colleges  or 
universities  is  both  sound  and  strong.  In  the  former  case, 
something  is  being  done  in  the  way  of  introducing  into  the 
higher  classes  of  the  elementary  school  a  few  of  the  subjects 
taught  in  the  secondary  school,  and  by  a  system  of  con- 
ferences and  interchange  of  visits  between  the  teachers  of 
these  two  institutions.  As  to  the  relations  between  the 
high  schools  and  the  colleges,  a  system  of  nomination  or 
"  accrediting  "  is  widely  adopted,  with  eminently  beneficial 
results.  Some  of  the  universities,  however,  still  exact  an 
entrance  examination. 

The  "  accrediting  "  system  consists  in  attaching  a  certain 
number  of  high  schools  to  the  university  in  order  that  they 
may  act  as  contributory  institutions.  For  this  purpose 
university  professors  pay  visits  of  inspection  to  the  high 
schools  at  various  times,  with  the  view  of  testing  their 
methods  and  general  efficiency.  Institutions  approved  on 
the  basis  of  these  visits  are  accredited  to  the  university, 
with  the  result  that  local  nomination  of  the  hierh  school 
graduates  is  accepted  by  the  university  in  lieu  of  examina- 
tion. In  this  way  the  ideals  in  the  highest  seats  of  learning 
are  brought  into  contact  with  the  secondary  schools,  which 
in  their  turn  might  well  be  in  similar  touch  with  the 
elementary  schools. 

Scholarships,   more   limited   in   America   than   in   this 
country,  and  confined  practically  to  the  universities,  are 
s.  o,  24 


338  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

also  mostly  awarded  on  a  nomination  basis.  They  are 
either  directly  awarded  on  the  results  of  enquiry  into 
the  needs,  character,  and  ability  of  a  candidate,  or  the 
university  attaches  a  few  scholarships  to  each  of  its 
"accredited"  high  schools,  and  allows  those  in  authority 
over  such  places  to  select  their  own  nominees. 

Home  Administration. — The  action  of  the  Board  of 
Education x  in  setting  the  standard  and  limitations  for  the 
secondary  schools  and  other  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
tion, and  in  demanding  that  about  20  per  cent.2  of  the 
accommodation  in  the  former  schools  shall  be  reserved  as 
"  free  places  "  for  pupils  entering  from  the  elementary 
schools,  points  to  a  new  educational  era.  The  Board  are 
clearly  feeling  their  way,  evidently  intending  at  present  to 
leave  as  large  a  measure  of  initiative  as  possible  with  the 
local  education  authority,  now  endowed  with  such  wide 
and  far-reaching  powers. 

The  local  education  authority  may  now,  under  conditions, 
provide  for  the  educational  needs  of  every  section  of  the 
community.  It  must  also  see  to  the  proper  co-ordination 
of  the  work  of  the  various  institutions  under  its  control 
and  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  them. 

The  machinery  of  government  is  necessarily  complex. 
In  the  first  place,  the  local  authority  is  under  statutory 
obligation  to  enforce  attendance  at  school  of  all  children 
from  five  to  fourteen  years  of  age  resident  within  the  area, 
and  to  provide  efficient  accommodation  and  a  suitable  staff 
for  their  instruction.  Each  authority  is  empowered  to 
make  its  own  bye-laws  for  purposes  of  attendance. 

Under  the  Education  Act3  1902  the  Council  of  every 

1  See  Regulations  for  Secondary  Schools.      2  Ibid. ,  Chap.  IV.  (20). 
3  Applicable  to  England  and  Wales.     A  further  Education  Act 
1903  extended  and  adapted  the  1902  Act  to  London. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  339 

county  and  of  every  county  borough  is  the  local  education 
authority.  There  are  certain  qualifications,  however,  con- 
cerning boroughs  and  urban  districts,  based  on  population.1 

Elementary  Education. — The  local  education  authority 
has  the  powers  and  duties  of  school  boards  and  school 
attendance  committees  under  the  Elementary  Education 
Acts  1870  to  1900  and  any  other  Acts,  and  is  responsible 
for,  and  has  the  control  of,  all  secular  instruction  in  public 
elementary  schools  not  provided  by  the  said  authority. 

All  public  elementary  schools  provided  by  the  local 
authority  must,  when  that  authority  is  the  council  of  a 
county,  have  a  body  of  managers  consisting  of  a  number 
not  exceeding  four  appointed  by  that  council,  and  a 
number  not  exceeding  two  appointed  by  the  minor  local 
authority.  Where,  however,  the  local  authority  is  the 
council  of  a  borough  or  urban  district,  it  may  appoint  for 
any  school  provided  by  it  a  body  of  managers  consisting 
of  any  number  it  may  determine. 

Public  elementary  schools  not  provided  by  the  local 
authority  must  have  a  body  of  managers  consisting  of  not 
more  than  four  foundation 2  managers  appointed  in  accord- 
ance with  the  provisions  of  the  Education  Act  1902,  to- 
gether with  two 3  other  managers. 

The  local  education  authority  must  maintain  and  keep 
efficient  all  public  elementary  schools  within  its  area  which 
are  necessary,  and  have  the  control  of  all  expenditure 
required  for  that  purpose,  other  than  expenditure  for 
which,  under  the  Education  Act  1902,  provision  is  to  be 
made  by  the  managers ;  but,  in  the  case  of  a  school  not 
provided  by  the  local  authority,  only  so  long  as  the  follow- 
ing conditions  and  provisions  are  complied  with  : — 

1  Act  1902,  Part  I.  2  See  Education  Act  1902,  Section  U. 

3  Ibid.,  Part  III.,  Section  6  (2-3). 


340  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION, 

(a)  The  managers  of  the  school  must  carry  out  any 
directions  of  the  local  education  authority  as  to  the  secular 
instruction  to  be  given  in  the  school,  including  any 
directions  with  respect  to  the  number  and  educational 
qualifications  of  the  teachers  to  be  employed  for  such 
instruction,  and  for  the  dismissal  of  any  teacher  on  educa- 
tional grounds ;  and  if  the  managers  fail  to  carry  out  any 
such  direction  the  local  education  authority  shall,  in 
addition  to  their  other  powers,  have  the  power  themselves 
to  carry  out  the  direction  in  question  as  if  the  said 
authority  were  the  managers  ;  but  no  direction  given  under 
this  provision  shall  be  such  as  to  interfere  with  reasonable 
facilities  for  religious  instruction  during  school  hours. 

(b)  The  local  education  authority  shall  have  power  to 
inspect  the  school. 

(c)  The  consent  of  the  local  education  authority  must 
be  obtained  to  the  appointment  of  teachers,  but  that  con- 
sent may  not  be  withheld  except  on  educational  grounds ; 
and  the  consent  of  the  authority  is  also  necessary  for  the 
dismissal  of  a  teacher,  unless  the  dismissal  be  on  grounds 
connected  with  the  giving  of  religious  instruction  in  the 
school. 

(d)  The  managers  of  the  school  must  provide  the  school 
house  free  of  any  charge,  except  for  the  teacher's  dwelling- 
house  (if  any),  to  the  local  education  authority  for  use  as 
a  public  elementary  school,  and  must,  out  of  funds  provided 
by  them,  keep  the  school  house  in  good  repair,  and  make 
such  alterations  and  improvements  in  the  buildings  as  may 
be  reasonably  required  by  the  local  education  authority; 
piovided  that  such  damage  as  the  local  authority  considers 
to  be  due  to  fair  wear  and  tear  in  the  use  of  any  room  in 
the  school  house  for  the  purpose  of  a  public  elementary 
school  shall  be  made  good  by  the  local  education  authority. 

(e)  The  managers  of  the  school  must,  if  the  local  educa- 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  34l 

tion  authority  lias  uo  suitable  accommodation  in  its  own 
schools,  allow  that  authority  to  use  any  room  in  the  school 
house  out  of  school  hours  free  of  charge  for  any  educational 
purpose,  but  this  obligation  shall  not  extend  to  more  than 
three  days  in  the  week. 

The  managers  of  a  school  maintained  but  not  provided 
by  the  local  education  authority,  in  respect  of  the  use  by 
them  of  the  school  furniture  out  of  school  hours,  and  the 
local  education  authority  in  respect  of  the  use  by  them  of 
any  room  in  the  school  house  out  of  school  hours,  shall  be 
liable  to  make  good  any  damage  caused  to  the  furniture  or 
the  room,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  reason  of  that  use  (other 
than  damage  arising  from  fair  wear  and  tear),  and  the 
managers  shall  take  care  that,  after  the  use  of  a  room  in 
the  school  house  by  them,  the  room  is  left  in  a  proper  con- 
dition for  school  purposes. 

If  any  question  arises  under  Section  (7)  of  the  Educa- 
tion Act  1902  between  the  local  education  authority  and 
the  managers  of  a  school  not  provided  by  the  authority, 
that  question  shall  be  determined  by  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. 

One  of  the  conditions  required  to  be  fulfilled  by  an 
elementary  school  in  order  to  obtain  a  parliamentary  grant 
shall  be  that  it  is  maintained  under  and  complies  with 
the  provisions  of  Section  (7). 

In  public  elementary  schools  maintained  but  not  pro- 
vided by  the  local  education  authority,  assistant  teachers 
and  pupil  teachers  may  be  appointed,  if  it  is  thought  fit, 
without  reference  to  religous  creed  and  denomination,  and, 
in  any  case  in  which  there  are  more  candidates  for  the 
post  of  pupil  teacher  than  there  are  places  to  be  filled,  the 
appointment  shall  be  made  by  the  local  education  authority, 
who  may  determine  the  respective  qualifications  of  the 
candidates  by  examination  or  otherwise. 


342  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

lieligious  instruction  given  in  a  public  elementary  school 
not  provided  by  the  local  education  authority  shall,  as 
regards  its  character,  be  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
(if  any)  of  the  trust  deed  relating  thereto,  and  shall  be 
under  the  control  of  the  managers  :  provided  that  nothing 
in  this  sub-section  shall  affect  any  provision  in  a  trust 
deed  for  reference  to  the  bishop  or  superior  ecclesiastical 
or  other  denominational  authority  so  far  as  such  provision 
gives  to  the  bishop  or  authority  the  power  of  deciding 
whether  the  character  of  the  religious  instruction  is  or 
is  not  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  trust 
deed. 

The  managers  of  a  school  maintained  but  not  provided 
by  the  local  education  authority  shall  have  all  powers  of 
management  required  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the 
Education  Act  1902,  and  shall  [subject  to  the  powers  of 
the  local  education  authority  under  Section  (7)]  have  the 
exclusive  power  of  appointing  and  dismissing  teachers. 

The  power  to  provide  instruction  under  the  Elementary 
Education  Acts  1870  to  1900  shall,  except  where  those 
Acts  expressly  provide  to  the  contrary,  be  limited  to  the 
provision  in  a  public  elementary  school  of  instruction 
given  under  the  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Education  to 
scholars  who,  at  the  close  of  the  school  year,  will  not  he 
more  than  sixteen  years  of  age :  provided  that  the  local 
education  authority  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  extend  those  limits  in  the  case  of  any  such 
school  if  no  suitable  higher  education  is  available  within 
a  reasonable  distance  of  the  school.1 

The  powers  of  a  council  under  the  Education  Act  1902 

may  include  the  provision  of  vehicles  or  the  payment  of 

reasonable   travelling  expenses   for   teachers   or   children 

attending  school  or  college  whenever  the  council  may  con- 

1  This  is  Section  22  (2)  of  the  Education  Act  1902. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN   RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  343 

sider  such  provision  or  payment  required  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  area  or  of  any  part  thereof. 

Further,  under  the  Education  (Administrative  Pro- 
visions) Act  1907— 

The  powers  and  duties  of  a  local  education  authority 
under  Part  III.  of  the  Education  Act  1902  shall  include 
(1)  a  power  to  aid  by  scholarships  or  bursaries  the  instruc- 
tion in  public  elementary  schools  of  scholars  from  the  age 
of  twelve  up  to  the  limit  of  age  fixed  for  the  provision  of 
instruction  in  a  public  elementary  school  by  Section  22  (2) 
of  that  Act. 

(2)  A  power  to  provide  for  children  attending  a  public 
elementary  school,  vacation  schools,  vacation  classes,  play- 
centres,  or  other  means  of  recreation  during  their  holidays 
or  at  such  other  times  as  the  local  education  authority  may 
prescribe,  in  the  school  house  or  in  some  other  suitable  place 
in  the  vicinity,  so  far  as  the  local  education  authority,  in  the 
case  of  a  school  house  or  place  not  belonging  to  them,  can 
obtain  for  the  purpose  the  use  of  the  school  house  or  place. 

(3)  A  duty  to  provide  for  medical  inspection.1 

Higher  Education. — The  local  education  authority 
must  consider  the  educational  needs  of  the  area  and  take 
such  steps  as  seem  desirable,  after  consultation  with  the 
Board  of  Education,  to  supply  or  aid  the  supply  of  educa- 
tion other  than  elementary,  and  to  promote  the  general  co- 
ordination of  all  forms  of  education :  provided  that  the 
amount  raised  by  the  council  of  a  county  for  the  purpose 
in  any  year  out  of  rates  under  the  Education  Act  1902 
shall  not  exceed  the  amount  which  would  be  produced  by 
a  rate  of  twopence  in  the  pound,  or  such  higher  rate  as  the 
county  council,  with  the  consent  of  the  Local  Government 

Board,  may  fix. 

1  See  pp.  303  and  324  supra. 


344  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Concurrent  Powers  of  Smaller  Boroughs  and  Urban  Dis- 
tricts.— The  council  of  any  non-county  borough  or  urban  dis- 
trict has  power,  as  well  as  the  county  council,  to  spend  such 
sums  as  it  thinks  fit  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  or  aiding 
the  supply  of  education  other  than  elementary :  provided 
that  the  amount  raised  by  the  council  of  a  non-county 
borough  or  urban  district  for  the  purpose  in  any  year  out 
of  rates  under  the  aforesaid  Act  shall  not  exceed  the 
amount  which  would  be  produced  by  a  rate  of  one  penny 
in  the  pound. 

Religious  Instruction. — A  council,  in  the  application  of 
money  under  Part  II.  of  the  aforesaid  Act,  shall  not  require 
that  any  particular  form  of  religious  instruction  or  worship 
or  any  religious  catechism  or  formulary  which  is  distinc- 
tive of  any  particular  denomination  shall  or  shall  not  be 
taught,  used,  or  practised  in  any  school,  college,  or  hostel 
aided  but  not  provided  by  the  council,  and  no  pupil  shall, 
on  the  ground  of  religious  belief,  be  excluded  from  or 
placed  in  an  inferior  position  in  any  school,  college,  or 
hostel  provided  by  the  council,  and  no  catechism  or  formu- 
lary distinctive  of  any  particular  religious  denomination 
shall,  etc. 

In  a  school  or  college  receiving  a  grant  from,  or  main- 
tained by,  the  local  education  authority  under  Part  II. 
of  the  Education  Act  1902,  a  scholar  attending  as  a  day 
or  evening  scholar  shall  not  be  required,  as  a  condition  of 
being  admitted  into,  or  remaining  in  the  school  or  college, 
to  attend  or  abstain  from  attending  any  Sunday  school, 
place  of  religious  worship,  religious  observance,  or  instruc- 
tion in  religious  subjects  in  the  school  or  college  or  else- 
where :  and  the  times  for  religious  worship,  or  for  any 
lesson  in  a  religious  subject,  shall  be  conveniently  arranged 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  the  withdrawal  of  any  such 
scholar  therefrom. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  345 

The  power  to  supply,  or  aid  the  supply  of,  education 
other  than  elementary  includes  a  power  to  train  teachers, 
and  to  supply,  or  aid  the  supply  of,  any  education  except 
where  that  education  is  given  at  a  public  elementary 
school. 

The  power  of  a  council  to  supply  or  aid  the  supply  of 
education,  other  than  elementary,  shall  include  power  to 
make  provision  for  the  purpose  outside  the  area  in  cases 
where  it  is  considered  expedient  to  do  so  in  the  interests  of 
the  area,  and  shall  include  power  to  provide  or  assist  in 
providing  scholarships  for,  and  to  pay  or  assist  in  paying 
the  fees  of,  students  at  schools  or  colleges  or  hostels  within 
or  without  that  area. 

From  these  generalisations  it  will  be  seen  what  heavy 
responsibilities  and  far-reaching  powers  devolve  upon  the 
local  education  authority :  but  these  are  by  no  means 
all.  The  Children  Act  1908,  for  example,  wherein  are 
codified  many  previous  Acts  concerning  the  care  and  edu- 
cation of  children,  throws  additional  responsibilities  on  the 
local  authority. 

The  detail,  however,  in  the  work  of  administration,  is 
almost  endless.  After  the  general  principles  have  been 
determined  upon  which  the  authority  has  decided  to  act, 
there  remain  the  rules  and  regulations  to  be  framed  for 
the  guidance  of  all  concerned  in  the  administration  of  the 
area.  The  duties  of  managers,  teachers,  and  other  officers 
must  be  defined  and  codified ;  principles  must  be  estab- 
lished that  shall  govern  expenditure  in  every  department 
of  the  work ;  the  number  and  length  of  vacations  must  be 
determined ;  school  hours  must  be  defined  and  definite 
provision  made  for  the  training  of  pupil  and  student 
teachers. 

Some  provision  must  also  be  made  for  centralised 
instruction  in  handicraft,  domestic  and   other   subjects; 


346  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  the  conditions  determined  under  which  inter- depart- 
mental promotions  are  made,  and  drafts  to  institutions 
of  higher  rank  carried  out.  Many  education  authorities 
have  thought  it  necessary  also  to  give  clear  definition  to 
the  principles  that  should  underlie  Scripture  instruction, 
to  name  some  subjects  as  obligatory  in  various  types  of 
schools,  to  indicate  the  minimum  times  per  week  to  be 
devoted  to  certain  other  subjects  such  as  singing,  physical 
exercises,  drawing,  etc.,  to  have  a  regular  time  throughout 
the  area  for  the  closure  of  registers,  and  to  draw  up  a 
formal  set  of  rules  for  the  administration  of  corporal 
punishment.  Again,  in  some  areas  the  authority  has 
decided  that  home-lessons  shall  be  optional,  and  that 
detention  after  school  hours,  beyond  say  half-an-hour,  shall 
not  be  allowed. 

It  is  obvious  from  this  brief  recital — many  other  matters 
might  be  included — that  the  local  authority  can  do  much 
to  make  or  mar  the  efficiency  of  education  within  its  area. 

Reservation  of  Places. — It  is  necessary  to  have  an 
officially  recognised  accommodation *  for  each  school  or 
department ;  and  the  average  attendance  for  the  school 
year  must  not  exceed  the  number  representing  that  accom- 
modation \  It  is  clear  therefore  that  the  number  of  pupils 
in  a  department — the  number  on  the  roll — may  exceed  the 
number  of  places  for  which  that  department  is  recognised. 
The  Board  of  Education  do  not  say  what  that  excess  may 
be,  but  make  a  general  provision  to  the  effect  that  "  no 
room  may  be  habitually  used  for  a  larger  number  of  scholars 
than  that  for  which  it  is  passed  by  the  Board."3  It  thus 
becomes  necessary  for  the  local  authority  to  give  numerical 
values  to  the  maximum  excess.  A  fixed  percentage  might 
suit  one  area  but  not  another,  the  conditions  of  labour  and 

1  Art.  17  (c).         2  Art.  19.         3  Art.  19. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.   347 

attendance  being  different;  it  might  also  prove  equally 
unsuitable  to  two  scliools  in  the  same  borough  for  similar 
reasons.  It  is  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  rule  for 
guidance  in  order  to  prevent  (a)  possible  overcrowding, 
(b)  waste  of  places,  (c)  a  block  in  the  flow  of  promotion 
from  one  department  to  another,  and  (d)  admissions  from 
the  outside  when  there  is  the  certainty  of  a  draft  of  scholars 
from  a  junior  department  in  the  near  future. 

The  percentage  of  excess  over  the  accommodation  of  a 
department  that  has  proved  a  workable  arrangement  in 
one  large  educational  area  is  as  follows : 

For  boys'  departments  5  per  cent. — if  the  accommodation 
is  300,  the  roll  limit  wrould  be  315. 

For  mixed  departments  6  per  cent. 

For  girls'  departments  7  per  cent. 

For  infants'  departments  10  per  cent. 

Some  variations  are  allowed  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  particular  schools,  e.g.  a  boys'  department  that  secures 
a  yearly  percentage  of  attendance  of  97  or  98  would  have 
its  roll  limited  by  3  per  cent,  or  2  per  cent.  These  figures 
have  been  determined  a  posteriori. 

A  rule  of  this  nature  cannot,  however,  operate  at  all 
periods  of  the  year  except  in  infant  schools  and  similar  junior 
departments.  Most  inter-departmental  promotions  are 
usually  made,  for  example,  at  the  close  of  the  educational 
year.  Places  must  therefore  be  reserved  in  the  senior 
department  at  that  and  other  times  when  such  promotions 
are  projected,  in  order  that  the  infant  draft  of  scholars 
may  find  accommodation  there,  without  exceeding  the  roll 
limit.  The  particular  period  of  the  year  when  external 
admissions  must  be  stopped  or  checked  for  this  purpose 
is  not  generally  named  by  the  local  authority,  because  the 
circumstances  of  each  school  may  vary  so  greatly ;  but  the 
question  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  head  teacher,  who 


348  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

must,  of  course,  show,  when  necessary,  that  he  has  acted 
on  reasonable  grounds.  The  principle  is  sound  that  those 
who  are  in  the  school  should  have  a  prior  claim  to  those 
who  are  outside. 

The  local  education  authority  may  also  demand  the  reser- 
vation of  places  in  secondary  schools  within  its  jurisdic- 
tion for  certain  scholars  from  the  elementary  schools. 

Scholarships. — The  local  authority  is  empowered  to 
provide  a  scheme  of  scholarships  by  which  a  pupil  may 
proceed  by  stages  from  the  elementary  school  to  institu- 
tions of  higher  rank,  even  to  the  university.  Every  child 
whose  ability  and  character  justify  a  more  advanced 
education  than  parents  or  guardians  are  able  to  provide, 
should  have  opportunities,  subject  to  certain  limitations 
and  in  competition  with  others,  of  securing  scholarships 
with  sufficient  pecuniary  emoluments  attached  thereto  to 
enable  him  to  obtain  that  kind  of  education  best  suited 
to  his  needs  and  capacities. 

The  trend  of  most  scholarship  schemes  may  be  best 
seen  by  giving  a  brief  outline  of  those  in  existence  in  one 
large  educational  area.1  They  are,  however,  probably 
more  complete  than  those  in  most  other  localities. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  scholarships : 

(1)  County — graded  into  (a)  Junior  County, 

(6)  Supplementary  Junior 
County, 

(c)  Intermediate  County, 

(d)  Senior  County. 

(2)  Technical  and  Trade. 

(3)  Scholarships  for  those  preparing  for  the  teaching 
profession. 

1  County  of  London. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  349 

Nomination  and  a  competitive  examination  are  necessary 
in  most  cases. 

Junior  County  scholarships  are  awarded  to  children 
between  the  ages  of  11  and  12,  are  tenable  in  the  first 
instance  for  three  years,  and  are  renewable  for  a  further 
two  years  in  the  case  of  scholars  who  show  ability  to  profit 
by  further  secondary  education.  They  cover  free  educa- 
tion at  a  secondary  school,  together  with,  in  most  cases, 
maintenance  grants.  At  the  end  of  the  five  years'  tenure, 
the  scholar  may  continue  at  school  as  a  free  pupil,  but 
receives  no  maintenance  grant. 

The  supplementary  scholarships  are  awarded  to  children 
of  the  age  of  13  who,  because  of  late  development  or  other 
good  reason,  miss  the  Junior  County  scholarship. 

The  Intermediate  scholarships  are  open  to  candidates 
from  16  to  17  years  of  age ;  they  cover  free  education  at  a 
secondary  school  or  other  institution  for  higher  education 
until  the  end  of  the  school  year  in  which  the  scholar 
attains  the  age  of  18,  and  can  under  certain  conditions  be 
extended  for  a  further  year.  Maintenance  grants  are  in 
most  cases  attached  to  the  scholarships. 

The  Senior  scholarships  are  intended  for  candidates  of 
the  age  of  18  and  upwards  who  desire  to  pursue  a  course 
of  study  at  an  institution  of  university  rank.  They  vary 
in  value  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  candidates 
and  the  course  of  study  which  they  intend  to  pursue. 
They  are  not  awarded  as  a  result  of  examination,  but  after 
consideration  of  the  candidates'  records  and  reports  from 
their  teachers,  the  local  authority,  however,  reserving  the 
right  to  examine  candidates,  if  it  thinks  fit.  The  scholar- 
ships are,  as  a  rule,  only  awarded  to  candidates  who  have 
won  some  other  scholarship  tenable  at  an  institution  of 
university  rank. 

The  Technical  and  Trade  scholarships  are  intended   to 


350  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

afford  opportunity  of  learning  the  theory  and  practice  of 
some  skilled  trade.  They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
those  intended  to  prepare  boys  and  girls  to  enter  the  trade 
in  question  and  those  intended  to  give  to  artisans  and 
others  already  in  the  trade  a  fuller  knowledge  of  subjects 
bearing  upon  their  work. 

Trade  scholarships  provide  a  course  of  training  at  a 
trade  school  for  two,  or  in  some  cases  for  three,  vears. 
The  usual  age  of  admission  is  14.  The  trades  in  which 
instruction  is  given  are  engineering,  cabinet-making,  wood- 
carving,  cookery,  building,  book  production,  silversmithing, 
etc.,  for  boys,  and  dressmaking  and  other  needle  trades, 
including  upholstery  and  millinery,  photography  and 
laundry  work  for  girls. 

In  addition  to  the  trade  scholarships,  there  are  domestic 
economy  scholarships  for  girls  leaving  the  elementary 
schools  at  the  age  of  14,  which  provide  a  one  or  two 
years'  course  of  training  in  domestic  work. 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  trade  scholarships  are  scholar- 
ships for  blind,  deaf,  or  crippled  children,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  help  physically  defective  children  to  learn 
a  trade  by  which  they  may  ultimately  become  self-sup- 
porting. 

On  the  Technical  side  there  are  (1)  scholarships  and 
(2)  exhibitions. 

The  scholarships  provide  for  full  time  study  in  the  day 
time  at  an  institution  giving  advanced  instruction  in  science 
and  art.  They  are  intended  for  persons  who  have  already 
begun  their  life's  work,  but  who  are  willing  to  give  up 
their  occupation  for  a  certain  period  in  order  to  devote 
their  whole  time  to  the  study  of  some  branch  of  science 
or  art  bearing  upon  their  work.  Maintenance  grants  up 
to  <£50  a  year  may  be  attached  to  the  scholarships. 

The   exhibitions   are   intended   to   assist   artisans   who 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  351 

desire  to  attend  evening  classes  on  subjects  bearing  on 
their  trade.  They  provide  free  admission  to  the  course 
chosen,  and,  in  addition,  carry  a  small  grant  to  cover 
travelling  and  other  incidental  expenses. 

The  third  kind  of  scholarship  provides  a  scheme,  by 
means  of  which  a  boy  or  girl  may  proceed  by  various 
stages  from  the  public  elementary  school  to  a  training 
college  for  teachers. 

The  local  authority  gives  assistance  to  enable  students 
to  undertake  a  course  of  training.  As  regards  education 
up  to  the  age  of  16,  assistance  is  given  by  means  of  the 
County  scholarships.  The  Junior  County  scholarship  is 
tenable,  subject  to  satisfactory  progress,  for  five  years,  and 
the  candidate  is  not  pledged  to  become  a  teacher. 

On  attaining  the  age  of  16,  the  candidate  for  the 
teaching  profession  usually  spends  half  the  two  years, 
prior  to  admission  to  college,  in  continuing  his  or  her 
general  education  at  a  secondary  school  and  half  in  prac- 
tice in  teaching  in  an  elementary  school.  If  the  first  year 
is  spent  continuously  in  the  secondary  school  and  the 
second  year  in  the  elementary  school,  the  candidate  is 
called  a  "  bursar "  during  the  first  year  and  a  "  student 
teacher  "  during  the  second  year. 

On  attaining  the  age  of  18  and  passing  one  of  the  exami- 
nations required  by  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  candidate  is  eligible  to  enter  a  training  college. 

Children's  Care  Committees.1 — The  provision  of  food 
for  necessitous  school  children  is  now  practically  a  charge 
upon  the  rates.  The  local  education  authority  is  em- 
powered by  the  Education  Act  1906  (Provision  of  Meals) 
and  the  Education  Act  1907  (Administrative  Provisions) 
"to  defray  the  cost  of  food  furnished  in  meals,"  under 

1  See  L.C.C.  Handbook  on  Children's  Care  Committees. 


352  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

certain  conditions,  to  any  elementary  school  children 
within  its  area  who  are  "  unable,  by  reason  of  lack  of 
food,  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  education  provided  for 
them";  and  further,  it  has  "the  power  to  make  such 
arrangements  as  may  be  sanctioned  by  the  Board  of 
Education  for  attending  to  the  health  and  physical  con- 
dition of  the  children  educated  in  public  elementary 
schools."1  These  and  the  further  responsibilities  thrown 
upon  the  local  authority  by  the  Children  Act  1908  make 
the  formation  of  local  Care  Committees  imperative,  the 
functions  of  such  committees  consisting  not  only  in  feeding 
the  children,  but  also  in  an  active  interest  in  their  general 
welfare,  co-operating  with  existing  agencies  and  with 
parents  in  order  that  the  children  may  be  befriended 
in  many  ways. 

The  position  perhaps  will  be  made  clear  by  citing  the 
first  three  sections  and  the  sixth  section  of  the  Education 
Act  1906:— 

1.  Power  of  Local  Education  Authority  to  aid  School 
Canteen  Committees  in  the  Provision  of  Meals  for  Children. 
— A  local  education  authority  under  Part  III.  of  the 
Education  Act  1902  may  take  such  steps  as  they  think 
fit  for  the  provision  of  meals  for  children  in  attendance  at 
any  public  elementary  school  in  their  area,  and  for  that 
purpose — 

(a)  may   associate  with  themselves  any  committee  on 

which  the  authority  are  represented,  who  will 
undertake  to  provide  food  for  those  children  (in 
this  Act  called  a  "  school  canteen  committee  ")  ; 
and 

(b)  may  aid  that  committee  by  furnishing  such  land, 

buildings,  furniture,   and  apparatus,  and    such 

1  Education  Act  1007,  Sec.  13  (1)  ft. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  353 

officers  and  servants  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 

organisation,  preparation,  and  service  of  such 

meals ; 

but,  save  as  hereinafter  provided,  the  authority  shall  not 

incur  any  expense  in  respect  of  the  purchase  of  food  to  be 

supplied  at  such  meals. 

2.  Recovery  of  the  Cost  of  Meals. — (i)  There  shall  be 
charged  to  the  parent  of  every  child  in  respect  of  every 
meal  furnished  to  that  child  under  this  Act  such  an 
amount  as  may  be  determined  by  the  local  education 
authority,  and,  in  the  event  of  payment  not  being  made 
by  the  parent,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  authority,  unless 
they  are  satisfied  that  the  parent  is  unable  by  reason  of 
circumstances  other  than  his  own  default  to  pay  the 
amount,  to  require  the  payment  of  that  amount  from  that 
parent,  and  any  such  amount  may  be  recovered  sum- 
marily as  a  civil  debt. 

(ii)  The  local  education  authority  shall  pay  over  to  the 
school  canteen  committee  so  much  of  any  money  paid  to 
them  by,  or  recovered  from,  any  parent  as  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  authority  to  represent  the  cost  of  the  food 
furnished  by  the  committee  to  the  child  of  that  parent, 
less  a  reasonable  deduction  in  respect  of  the  expenses  of 
recovering  the  same. 

3.  Power  of  Local  Education  Authority  to  Defray  the 
Cost  of  Food  in  Certain  Cases. — Where  the  local  education 
authority  resolve  that  any  of  the  children  attending  an 
elementary  school  within  their  area  are  unable,  by  reason 
of  lack  of  foody  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  education 
provided  for  them,  and  have  ascertained  that  funds  other 
than  public  funds  are  not  available  or  are  insufficient  in 
amount  to  defray  the  cost  of  food  furnished  in  meals 
under  this  Act,  they  may  apply  to  the  Board  of  Education, 
and  that  Board  may  authorise  them  to  spend  out  of  the  rates 

s.  o.  25 


354  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

such  sum  as  will  meet  the  cost  of  the  provision  of  such  food, 
provided  that  the  total  amount  expended  by  a  local  educa- 
tion authority  for  the  purposes  of  this  section  in  any  local 
financial  year  shall  not  exceed  the  amount  which  would  be 
produced  by  a  rate  of  one  halfpenny  in  the  pound  over 
the  area  of  the  authority,  or,  where  the  authority  is  a 
county  council  (other  than  the  London  County  Council), 
over  the  area  of  the  parish  or  parishes  which  in  the  opinion 
of  the  Council  are  served  by  the  school. 

6*  Provision  as  to  Teachers. — No  teacher  seeking*  em- 
ployment or  employed  in  a  public  elementary  school  shall 
be  required  as  part  of  his  duties  to  supervise  or  assist,  or 
to  abstain  from  supervising  or  assisting,  in  the  provision 
of  meals,  or  in  the  collection  of  the  cost  thereof. 

It  will  be  seen  that  existing  agencies  should  be  utilised 
and  voluntary  effort  and  contributions  encouraged.  It  has 
become  generally  advisable  therefore  to  have  three  distinct 
but  inter- dependent  organisations  consisting  of : 

(1)  A  Care  Committee  for  each  school  (School  Com- 
mittee). 

(2)  A  Care  Committee  for  a  district  or  locality  (District 
Committee). 

(3)  A  Central  Care  Committee  formed  from  the  members 
of  the  Education  Committee  that  exercises  a  controlling 
power  over  all. 

The  duties  of  the  School  Committee  (consisting  chiefly 
of  local  managers)  should  be : — 

(1)  To  report  to  the  Central  Committee  (i)  all  children 
found  in  circumstances  which  apparently  render  it  desir- 
able that  they  should  be  dealt  with  under  Part  II.  (section 
12  (1)  )  of  the  Children  Act  1908,  with  a  view  to  action 
being  taken  for  the  safety  and  protection  of  the  children, 
and  for  the  punishment  of  the  parents  or  guardians,  and 
-     *  The  number  of  the  Section  in  the  Act  of  1906  is  preserved. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.   355 

(ii)  every  child  who  apparently  comes  within  the  pro- 
visions of  Part  IV.  (section  58  (1)  (d) )  of  the  Children 
Act  1908,  viz.  is  under  the  care  of  a  parent  or  guardian 
who  by  reason  of  criminal  or  drunken  habits  is  unfit  to 
have  the  care  of  the  child. 

(2)  To  determine  what  children  are  necessitous. 

(3)  To  see  that  no  child  in  want  fails  to  receive  food. 

(4)  To  appoint  individual  members  to  visit  the  homes 
and  thus  endeavour  to  improve  home  conditions  by  talks 
with  the  mothers. 

(5)  To  report  cases  where  children  appear  to  be  over- 
worked out  of  school  hours,  or  to  be  working  under 
unhealthy  conditions. 

(6)  To  endeavour  to  persuade  parents  to  obtain  the 
advice  and  treatment  recommended  in  the  medical  register 
of  the  school. 

(7)  To  encourage  thrift  and,  where  possible,  to  institute 
clubs  and  arrange  for  recreation  out  of  school  hours. 

(8)  To  keep  in  touch  with  beneficent  agencies  and  to 
pass  on  cases  to  that  agency  bast  suited  to  deal  with  them. 

(9)  To  advise  and  help  parents  in  the  after-employment 
of  their  children,  to  refer  suitable  cases  to  the  local 
apprenticeship  committees  and  labour  exchanges,  and 
generally,  by  advice  and  guidance,  to  exercise  a  watchful 
care  over  children  on  leaving  school. 

The  District  Committees  should  consist  of  a  certain 
number  of  representatives  from  the  School  Committees,  in 
addition  to  others  nominated  by  associations  interested  in 
the  work.  Briefly  their  duties  should  be:  (1)  To  collect 
voluntary  contributions,  (2)  to  disburse  sums  so  collected 
and  advances  (if  any)  made  by  the  local  authority,  (3)  to  ar- 
range and  manage  the  feeding  centres,  (4)  to  consider  what 
methods  shall  be  employed  in  after-care  and  especially 
in  placing  children  in  suitable  positions  on  leaving  school, 


356  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

and  (5)  to  report  to  the  Central  Committee  from  time  to 
time. 

But  in  addition  to  the  organisations  needed  for  the 
feeding  and  general  care  of  necessitous  children,  provision 
should  also  be  made  by  the  local  authority,  where  facilities 
exist,  for  the  dining  comfort  of  scholars  whose  homes  are 
distant,  or  those  otherwise  compelled  at  times  to  partake 
of  their  dinners  on  the  school  premises.  It  is  extremely 
important  that  tidiness,  cleanly  habits,  and  little  acts  of 
service  to  one  another  should  be  associated  with  meals. 
In  some  localities  the  dining  table 1  and  its  appurtenances 
have  their  temporary  place  in  hall  or  class-room  for  this 
purpose.  Thus  those  scholars  who  wish  to  have  a  dinner 
at  a  trifling  cost,  and  others  who  bring  their  food  with 
them,  are  able  to  partake  of  their  meals  under  proper 
conditions. 

Consultative  Committees. — In  America  committees, 
consisting  chiefly  of  head  masters  and  mistresses,  are 
called  into  existence  by  the  education  authority  to  under- 
take certain  advisory  duties  in  connection  with  educational 
questions. 

At  home,  the  utility  of  committees  of  this  type  is  re- 
cognised in  some  large  areas. 

In  one  great  centre,2  for  example,  two  Local  Consultative 
Committees  have  been  established  in  each  electoral  area 
by  the  education  authority,  one  for  masters  and  the  other 
for  mistresses.  There  are  also  two  Central  Consultative 
Committees  differentiated  on  the  same  lines. 

The  local  committees  consist  of  head  masters  and  mis- 
tresses of  the  public  elementary  schools,  secondary  schools, 
pupil  teacher  centres,  principals  of  colleges  (if  any),  and 

1  Cloth-covered  boards  and  trestles.  2  County  of  London. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  357 

the  senior  assistant  in  mixed  schools  within  the  locality  or 
electoral  area.  It  is  their  duty  to  consider  matters  referred 
to  them  by  the  education  authority  or  its  chief  officer  and 
to  report  accordingly. 

The  Masters'  Central  Committee  is  composed  of  the 
chairmen  of  the  corresponding  local  committees ;  and 
the  Mistresses'  Central  Committee  consists  of  the  chairmen 
and  vice-chairmen  of  the  local  Mistresses'  Committees. 

The  agenda  for  each  Central  Committee  is  prepared  by 
the  local  authority.  It  usually  contains  a  digest  of  the 
resolutions  adopted  by  the  local  committees  and  any  other 
matters  calling  for  special  and  representative  consideration. 

Combinations  of  Schools  mostly  for  purposes  other 
than  Co-ordination. — Such  combinations  may  be  pro- 
moted directly  by  the  local  authority,  by  one  of  its  officers, 
or  by  the  teachers  of  the  district  with  that  authority's 
sanction  and  approval.  Combinations  due  chiefly  to  un- 
official or  semi-official  enterprise  are : — (1)  Swimming 
Associations.  (2)  Athletic  Sports  Associations.  (3)  Lite- 
rary Societies.  (4)  Naturalist  Clubs.  (5)  Choral  Unions. 
(6)  Social  gatherings,  etc. 

When  municipal  baths,  the  river  or  the  sea  are  reason- 
ably near  and  otherwise  suitable  for  the  purpose,  swimming 
forms  part  of  the  school  instruction  in  the  summer  months, 
especially  in  the  case  of  boys'  departments.  It  has  been 
found  a  valuable  incentive  both  to  collective  and  individual 
effort  to  have  a  school  swimming  association  for  the 
district,  and  for  such  association  to  organise  competitions 
among  the  schools,  and  to  award  certificates,  medals,  etc., 
to  teachers  for  skill,  and  to  scholars  for  progress,  in  the 
aquatic  art.  The  work  of  the  London  Schools'  Swimming 
Association,  whose  aid  is  invoked  by  the  education  authority 
in  matters  that  concern  the  organisation  of  swimming  in 


358  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

clay  and  evening  schools,  is  an  example  of  what  may  be 
accomplished  in  this  way. 

In  a  similar  manner  and  with  equally  satisfactory  results, 
a  sports  association,  with  its  cricket  and  football  branches, 
has  had  its  value  enhanced  by  a  district  organisation.  A 
junior  naturalists'  club,1  for  either  boys  or  girls  or  both, 
has  been  found  in  many  instances  to  be  an  effective  force 
in  school  life.  Under  careful  direction  and  management 
it  should  prove  in  every  senior  department  an  instrument 
of  great  educational  power. 

Literary  or  choral  societies  are  suitable  for  the  evening 
schools.  The  choral  unions  of  the  London  evening  classes 
have  been  a  great  success.  Each  large  district  has  formed 
such  a  union.  Arrangements  are  made  for  all  schools 
within  the  Association  to  study,  during  the  session,  selected 
pieces  of  classical  or  semi-classical  music.  Partially  or 
wholly  combined  rehearsals  take  place  at  intervals,  and 
towards  the  close  of  the  session  a  musical  festival  is  held 
by  the  combined  schools. 

It  is  suggested  that  two  or  more  day  schools  might 
profitably  join  hands  to  promote  simple  lectures  on  the 
easier  English  classics  for  the  older  scholars.  An  occa- 
sional "  evening  "  with  Longfellow,  Tennyson,  Dickens,  and 
others,  to  which  the  parents  could  be  invited,  and  in  which 
both  teachers  and  scholars  would  take  part,  should  prove 
very  effective.  This  experiment  has  been  tried  in  some 
day  and  evening  schools  with  success.  In  the  day  schools, 
however,  it  more  commonly  takes  the  class-room  form  of 
entertainment. 

A  Shakespeare  Club,  a  Tennyson  Club,  etc.,  formed  by 

the  upper  class  scholars  of  the  day  school,  to  study,  in  an 

organised  form,  the  works  of  the  author  after  whom  the 

club  is  named,  has  excited  a  lasting  interest  in  literature, 

1  This  has  been  tried  in  America  with  success. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  359 

and  lias  otherwise  been  productive  of  an  immense  amount 
of  good.  Much  of  the  work  associated  with  clubs  of  this 
kind  is  done  at  home  by  independent  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  scholars,  the  teacher  directing  and  stimulating  them 
from  time  to  time  at  school. 

Among  official  combinations  of  schools  are  the  follow- 
ing :— 

(1)  Combinations  for  purposes  of  lantern  illustrations. 

(2)  „  of  evening  classes  with  day  schools. 

(3)  „  for  subjects  taught  at  centres. 

(4)  ,,  for  prize  distributions. 

(5)  „  for  management — local  managers. 

(6)  ,,  for  exhibitions. 

(7)  „  for  examinations  (scholarships,  etc.). 

(8)  ,,  for   interchange   of    letters    between 

senior  pupils. 

Some  of  these  need  a  word  of  explanation. 

With  the  view  of  giving  effective  illustration  to  lessons 
in  Geography  and  History,  the  late  authority  for  London 
allowed  not  more  than  twenty  senior  departments  to  com- 
bine to  form  a  circle.  One  central  school  was  selected  as 
a  centre  for  lantern  slides  and  books  of  reference.  A 
committee  of  the  head  teachers  drew  up  courses  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  two  subjects,  wide  enough  to  admit  of  adjust- 
ment to  the  needs  of  any  school  within  the  circle.  Suitable 
lantern  slides  were  supplied  to  fit  in  with  these  courses, 
usually  in  boxes  containing  from  ten  to  eighteen  slides. 
Then,  by  means  of  a  scheme  of  rotation,  every  school 
obtained  the  box  of  slides  it  needed  at  the  right  time. 
Each  school  was,  of  course,  supplied  with  a  good  lantern 
and  all  accessories.  This  arrangement  has  worked  ex- 
tremely well.  It  has  been  the  chief  means  of  exciting  a 
stronger  interest  in  these  two  important  subjects. 


360  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

Association  of  day  with  evening  schools  has  taken  mostly 
the  contributory  form.  The  practice  has  been,  in  some 
areas,  to  attach  a  certain  number  of  day  senior  departments 
to  each  evening  school,  the  head  teachers  of  the  former 
supplying  monthly,  or  at  other  stated  periods,  lists  of 
scholars  who  were  about  to  leave  or  had  left  the  school 
and  were  no  longer  under  the  obligation  of  further  attend- 
ance. It  is  then  the  duty  of  the  responsible  teacher  of 
the  evening  school  to  communicate  with  the  scholars  or 
ex- scholars  named  on  the  list  with  the  view  of  securing 
their  attendance  at  school  in  the  evenings. 

The  centre  system  of  instruction  in  such  subjects  as 
woodwork,  cookery,  and  laundry  necessitates  an  organised 
combination  of  schools,  so  that  the  centre  may  be  fully 
utilised  and  the  least  possible  inconvenience  caused  to  the 
departments  sending  classes  there. 

With  regard  to  the  local  managers, '  it  is  usual  to  group 
three  Council  schools  together  and  place  them  under  the 
management  of  one  local  committee.  As  a  rule,  each  non- 
provided  school  has  its  own  committee  of  managers.2 

Interchange  of  Letters. — It  is  well  for  schools  to 
combine  for  this  purpose  so  that  each  willing  scholar  in 
the  upper  parts  of  the  school  may  have  a  correspondent 
in  some  other  school,  no  matter  how  remote.  In  this  way 
London  may  write  to  Edinburgh,  York  to  Canterbury, 
Birmingham  to  Liverpool,  Manchester  to  New  York.  It 
is  probably  best,  though  it  is  not  a  material  point,  for 
towns  that  are  widely  different  in  character  to  join  hands 
in  this  way,  e.g.  Bradford  with  Grimsby,  Newcastle  with 

1  The  constitution  of  these  committees  varies.  See  Education 
Acts  1902,  1903. 

2  By  Section  12  of  the  Education  Act  1902  a  number  of  volun- 
tary or  non-provided  schools  can  be  ' '  grouped  "  under  one  body  of 
managers. 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  3(31 

Nottingham,    Swansea    with    Kidderminster,    Manchester 
with  Plymouth,  and  so  on. 

A  scheme  for  interchange  of  letters  on  these  lines  is  in 
operation  in  some  areas.  In  the  county  of  London  it  has 
been  in  existence  some  years,  the  correspondence  being 
officially  limited  beyond  the  United  Kingdom  to  America, 
Germany,  Japan,  and  the  British  Colonies.  There  is 
nothing,  however,  to  prevent  head  teachers  supplementing 
this  scheme  by  acting  on  their  own  initiative  and  re- 
sponsibility. The  chief  points  in  the  London  scheme 
are: — (1)  The  first  letters  are,  as  a  rule,  written  abroad 
and  are  distributed  by  the  Education  Department  of  the 
Council  among  the  various  schools  that  have  expressed 
a  wish  to  join  in  the  scheme.  (2)  Replies  are  then  sent 
either  direct  or  through  the  Education  Offices,  according 
to  arrangements  made  by  the  controlling  authorities  at 
each  end.  (3)  When  the  initial  letters  are  written  in 
London  they  are  forwarded  in  school  batches  to  the  Edu- 
cation Department  of  the  Council,  and  thence  trans- 
mitted to  the  corresponding  department  abroad.  After 
the  first  letter,  however,  communications  are  sent  direct, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  head  teacher.  (4)  When 
several  replies  have  to  be  sent  to  the  same  school,  each 
is  enclosed  in  an  adequately  addressed  envelope,  and  the 
whole  batch  placed  in  one  wrapper  and  forwarded  to  the 
head  teacher  at  the  other  end  for  distribution  among 
the  scholars  concerned.  (5)  Teachers  are  requested  to 
see  that  the  letters  written  by  their  pupils  are  inter- 
esting. Touches  of  personal  history,  brief  accounts  of 
places  in  old  or  new  London,  pressed  flowers,  pictures 
from  illustrated  papers,  etc.,  coloured  views  of  buildings 
in  London  such  as  are  given  for  Reward  Cards,  are 
suggested  for  purposes  of  strengthening  the  correspond- 
ence link.   (6)  Reward  Cards  and  suitable  notepaper  are 


362  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

supplied  to  the  schools.     Teachers  are  refunded  any  ex- 
penditure incurred  in  postage. 

Relation  of  Schools  to  Centres. — It  is  manifest  that 
to  Obtain  the  maximum  educational  effect  the  work  of  the 
centres  for  instruction  in  domestic  subjects,  manual  train- 
ing, drawing,  etc.,  should  be  correlated  with  the  work  and 
aim  of  each  school  sending  its  pupils  there.    The  education 
authority  should  therefore  lay  down  the  general  principles 
for  the  guidance  of    all  concerned   in   this   relationship. 
These   principles   might   well    take   the   following    form. 
There  must  be  drawn  up  for  the  guidance  of  the  instruc- 
tor at  the  centre  a  general  syllabus,  wide  enough  in  range 
for  a  special  syllabus  to  emerge  from  it,  suitable  to  the 
needs  of   each  contributory  school;  and  that  this  special 
syllabus  should  be  defined  by  the  head  teacher   and  the 
centre  instructor  in  conference.     On  all  technical   points 
relating  to   the  centre   instruction,   the   specialist  should 
have    the    dominant    voice,    but    on    all    other    matters 
— especially   where    the    ground    is    common — the    head 
teacher's  view  should  prevail.     The  centre  should  be  con- 
sidered an  integral  part  of  the  contributory  school  on  all 
occasions  when  its  scholars    are  under  instruction  there, 
and  the  head  teacher  should  regard  his  visits  to  the  centre 
from  time  to  time  as  part  of  his  duty — for  his  authority 
and  responsibility  extend  as  far  as  this,  subject  to  the 
qualifications  already  mentioned. 

Nature  Study,  Gardening,  Drawing,  etc. — The  wider 
powers  given  to  the  local  authority  by  the  various  Educa- 
tion Acts  from  1902  onwards  make  it  possible  to  open  up 
resources  hitherto  practically  closed  for  school  purposes. 
Public  recreation  grounds  and  parks  under  the  control  of 
the  local  authority  can  now  be  brought  into  closer  rela- 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  363 

tionsliip  with  school  life.  The  first  named,  for  example, 
can  be  utilised  for  organised  games  by  neighbouring 
educational  establishments,  and  where  parts  of  these 
grounds  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  plots 
may  well  be  assigned  to  schools  for  gardening  purposes. 
As  far  as  possible,  every  school  should  have  its  garden  on 
or  adjoining  the  school  premises  ;  but  in  large  cities  and 
towns  this  is  not  always  practicable :  and  in  such  cases 
the  nearest  public  recreation  ground  is  the  most  suitable 
place. 

Gardens  and  gardening  bring  brightness  into  the  lives 
of  those  who  live  in  great  populous  centres.  Parents 
of  scholars  and  the  public  generally  would  be  more  likely 
to  visit  the  recreation  grounds  oftener,  and  take  a  greater 
interest  in  their  salient  characteristics,  if  these  places  were 
associated  with  the  skilful  work  of  children — who,  as 
a  rule,  take  pleasure  in  gardening,  in  watching  the 
growth  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and  in  realising  some  of 
the  results  of  their  own  powers.  Gardening,  perhaps,  is 
one  of  the  few  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum  that 
evenly  holds  the  balance  between  the  claims  of  physical 
and  mental  development,  provided  there  is  a  proper  adap- 
tation of  means  to  ends.  It  is,  indeed,  nature  study  in  its 
primitive  and  best  form. 

In  some  localities  the  education  authority  has  devised  a 
scheme  for  supplying  the  schools,  at  regular  intervals, 
with  botanical  specimens  for  nature  study,  drawing,  and 
botany.  In  one  large  area  these  specimens,  gathered  from 
the  parks  and  other  open  spaces,  are  sent  fortnightly  to 
the  elementary  schools,  and  weekly  to  secondary  schools 
and  colleges,  each  of  which  has  been  placed  on  an  approved 
list  for  this  purpose.  The  local  authority,  by  means  of  a 
weekly  official  gazette,  in  which  all  announcements  affect- 
ing the  schools  generally  are  made,  names  the  botanical 


364  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

specimens  available  each  week;  and  thus  teachers  can 
requisition  exactly  what  they  want.  Similarly,  once  a 
year,  after  clue  announcement,  plants  and  cuttings  from 
the  parks  and  other  open  spaces  are  distributed,  with  the 
view  of  encouraging  home  gardens  and  home  cultivation 
of  flowers  generally.  In  addition  to  these  means,  a  yearly 
allowance  of  some  shillings  is  made  to  each  department — 
proportionally  to  size — to  cover  purchases  in  connection 
with  object  lessons  and  nature  study. 

Sometimes,  too,  when  distances  exceed  a  mile,  the  local 
authority  has  arranged  for  scholars  to  travel  free,  or  at 
reduced  fares,  when  either  going  to  or  from  the  swimming 
bath,  in  school  hours  or  when  paying  educational  visits1 
under  the  regulations  of  the  Code. 

Circulation  of  Books  and  Pictures. — Lists  of  suitable 
books  having  been  determined,  it  has  been  both  a  useful 
and  economical  plan  to  circulate  them  in  boxes  of  20 
volumes  among  the  evening  schools,  e.g.  20  volumes  of 
the  Tempest  or  of  Ivanhoe.  A  scheme  of  this  kind 
prevents  the  accumulation  of  books  in  the  school  and  gives 
the  variety  that  is  needed  from  term  to  term,  or  session  to 
session,  without  any  additional  expense  beyond  that  in- 
volved in  carriage.  With  larger  boxes  and  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  number  of  volumes,  this  should  prove  an 
equally  efficacious  plan  for  supplying  books  to  the  upper 
classes  of  the  day  school. 

The  same  principle  might  well  be  adopted  by  education 
authorities  for  the  circulation  of  pictures,  which  under 
existing  practices  are  allocated  to  a  school  for  all  time. 
They  soon  cease  to  interest  or  attract.  Arranged  in  suit- 
able sets,  exchanges  could,  with  great  advantage,  be  carried 
out  once   a  year.     A  freshness  would  then  occasionally 

1  Art.  44  (&). 


THE  SCHOOL  IN  RELATION  TO  LOCAL  ADMINISTRATION.  365 

come  into  the  school  environment  by  this  means,  and 
the  mental  vision  of  both  scholars  and  teachers  would 
probably  be  extended  thereby.  Pictures  when  really  good 
should  be  often  made  the  subject  of  talks  with  the  class 
and  of  lessons  in  composition. 

A  School's  Secondary  Function. — As  it  becomes 
necessary  for  the  education  authority  to  train  young 
people  for  the  work  of  teaching,  so  also  it  is  necessary 
to  have  some  schools  wherein  they  can  practise  and  learn 
the  main  principles  relating  to  their  coming  profession. 

Generally,  when  the  number  of  educational  establish- 
ments in  a  given  area  admits  of  a  choice,  only  schools  of 
the  best  repute  should  be  selected  for  purposes  of  this  kind 
of  training.  It  is  obviously  important  that  the  learner 
should  be  brought  into  contact  with  methods  and  work  of 
the  highest  type,  and  with  ideals  that  will  energise  and  guide 
him  to  the  goal  he  is  seeking.  Not  only  skill  in  exposition, 
but  disciplinary  power  and  a  multitude  of  other  qualities, 
amongst  which  faith  should  loom  large,  must  be  acquired 
before  a  broad-based  efficiency  can  be  reached. 

Generally,  therefore,  pupil  teachers  and  student  teachers 
should  not  have  their  claims  subordinated  to  school  exi- 
gencies. They  are  placed  in  the  schools  primarily  to  be 
trained  for  their  life's  work ;  and  though  it  is  not  possible 
for  them  to  be  efficiently  trained  without  rendering  some 
assistance  to  a  fully  qualified  staff,  yet  this  assistance 
should  always  occupy  a  secondary  place  in  the  organiser's 
mind.  Indeed,  it  is  only  through  this  subordination  that 
both  scholars  and  would-be  teachers  can  derive  the  greatest 
amount  of  good. 

If  the  class  master  or  mistress  has,  at  times,  to  make 
some  apparent  sacrifices  these  will  often  prove  to  be 
blessings  in  disguise,  for  no  one  can  train  others  without 


3(36  SCHOOL    ORGANISATION. 

learning  something  himself :  and  the  freshness  of  youth, 
combined  with  a  desire  to  acquire  skill,  is  frequently  an 
uplifting  influence. 

The  pupil  or  student  teacher  is  in  touch,  too,  on  the 
academic  side,  with  the  recent  aspects  of  educational 
thought,  and  does  occasionally  bring  into  the  class-room  a 
little  light  that  might  not  otherwise  be  there.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  said  of  all  teachers  and  others,  that  where  the 
spiritual  reach  is  farthest — and  this  depends  largely  on 
direct  or  indirect  contact  with  many  minds — the  wider 
must  be  the  general  outlook  and  the  greater  the  probability 
of  success  in  the  work  they  are  called  upon  to  do. 


It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  points  briefly  discussed 
in  this  chapter  represent  wholly  the  relationship  of  the 
local  authority  to  the  school.  In  almost  every  part  of  this 
volume  will  be  found  matters  that  directly  or  indirectly 
concern  central  or  local  administration.  The  choice  of 
teachers,  the  principles  of  staffing,  the  co-ordination  of 
schools  and  their  equipment,  the  planning  of  buildings,  and 
a  hundred  and  one  other  considerations  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  cover  the  powers  and  responsibilities  of  the  local 
authority,  which  touch  the  school  at  almost  every  point. 
But  nevertheless  the  teacher's  influence  must  always  be 
the  dominant  one.  He  will,  however,  be  greatly  assisted 
in  his  work  of  forming  and  strengthening  character  and  of 
developing  intelligence  in  his  pupils  if  the  local  authority 
is  moved  by  lofty  ideals  expressed  in  appropriate  and 
consistent  action. 


INDEX. 


ABSENCES,  221 
Accommodation,  17,19,29 
Accommodation,  marginal,  19, 69 
"  Accrediting  "  system,  335,  337 
Addresses,  264,  295 
Administration,  338 

—  elementary    education,    339- 

343 

—  higher  education,  343-6 
Admissions,  84,  144,  347 
Advancement,  premature,  91 
Ages,  92,.  145 

—  as  factors  in  promotion,  92, 126 
Aid  (supplementary),  84 

Aids  (to  discipline),  286 
Aim,  2,  83,  97,  118,  253 

—  ethical,  3 
Air,  43 

American  Ladder,  335 
Anchorage  class,  220 
Aptitude  (special),  98 
Arithmetic,  79,  94 
Armstrong,  Prof.,  237 
Art,  98 

—  room,  22,  28 
Aspect,  33 
Associations — 

swimming,  357 

sports,  357 

literary,  357 

choral,  357 
Athletics,  111,  119 
Attainments,  126,  145-8 
Attendance,  127,  258,  307-9 

—  average,  152 

—  "  habitual,"  65 


367 


BADGES,  261 
Bain,  Prof.,  129 
Banners,  262 
"  Batavia  system,"  162 
Battery,  89 
Benson,  A.  C,  118 
Berlin,  95 
Bias,  94,  198 
Blackboards,  20,  58-9 
Blame,  117 
"  Block  system,"  217 
Botanical  specimens,  363 
Braille  system,  186 
Brain,  129,  134-5 
Browning,  E.  B.,  332 
Buildings — 

—  no  finality  in,  9 

—  types  of,  9-16 

—  American,  10 

—  factors  for  consideration  in,  15 

—  plans  of,  33,  75 

—  foundations  of,  33 

—  sites  of,  33 
Bursaries,  196 
Bye-law  Returns,  321 


CARE    COMMITTEES,     351. 
354 
"  Central  "  schools,  195 

admissions  to,  196 

Certificat  d'etudes,  203 
Certificates.  269 
Chairs,  57,  106 
Chalk  dust,  59 
Change,  4,  5,  22,  89,  139 


368 


INDEX. 


Character,  3,  21,  31,  251,  257 
Child's  book,  323 
Children — 

—  defective,  29,  181,  332 

—  ill-nourished,  91 

—  precocious,  91 

—  backward,  92,  94 

—  normal,  129 

—  talented,  332 

—  necessitous,  351 

—  under  3  years,  137,  307 

—  over  16  years,  307 
Circles  (lantern),  359 
Civics,  231 

Class  discipline,  114-21 
principles  of,  120-1 

—  system,  159 

—  teachers,  107 
sex  of,  123-5 

—  work,  119 
Classes,  62,  128 

—  ungraded,  19,  93,  103 
-  size  of,  64-5,  83,  152 

—  conditions  of  variation  in  size, 

64 

—  scholars  in  excess,  69 

—  large,  71 

—  intermediate,  93 

—  highest,  94 

—  small,  99 

—  vis  agendi  of,  114 

—  combined,  157 

—  special,  157 

—  playground,  190 
Classes  Enfantines,  139 
Classification,  2, 92,  144,  151,225 

—  cross,  226 
Class-rooms — 

—  size  of,  17,25,  161,  182 

—  height  of,  25 

—  proportions  of,  19,  155 

—  for  infants,  23 

—  accommodation  of,  24-6 

—  as  accessories,  32 

—  for  babies,  50 

—  interchangeability  of,  104 
Cloak-rooms,  39 

Clubs,  112,  300,  302,  358 


Co-education,  148 

—  pros  and  cons,  149-51 
Colours,  38,  42 
Combinations  of  schools,  356 
Conduct,  251-2,  265 
Conferences,  122,  249 
Consultative  Committees,  356 
Contact,  93 

Continuation  schools,  xxxi,  205 
day  classes,  205 

—  —  evening  classes,  210 
Contributory  schools,  204 
Cookery,  26,  98 
Co-ordination,  22,  249,  258 
Corridors,  10,  38 

Courses  (of  instruction),  71,  89 
Creche,  140 
Criticism,  113,  308 
Cupboards,  59 

Curriculum,  xxxii,  88,  176,  182, 
230,  234,  236 


DAMP-PROOF  COURSE,  34 
"  Day  School  Code,"  xvi 
De  Garmo,  4 

Deparmental  teaching,  226 
Departments,  97,  126 

—  kinds  of,  126-7 

—  size  of,  15,  136 
Desks,  29,  51,  104,  183 

—  dangers  from  improper  desk- 

ing,  51 

—  "  Sheffield  system,"  52 

—  conditions  of  good  desking,  53 

—  different  sizes  of,  56 

—  adjustable,  56,  105 

—  single,  56,  57,  182 
Development,  129,  132-3 

—  arrested,  89 

Discipline,    101,    115,    118,    119, 
166,  251-305 

—  definition  of,  251 

—  class,  114-21 

—  aims  of,  253 

—  kinds  of,  253-5 

—  ends  of,  254 
Disposition,  145 


INDEX. 


369 


Domestic  subjects,  98-9 

Drainage,  natural,  8,  33 

Draught-board,  46 

Drawing,  20,  362 

—  model,  103 

Dust,  60 

Dynamic  principle,  256 


EASELS,  58 
Ecoles  Gardienncs,  139 
Ecoles  Matemelles,  138 
Edge  worth,  M.,  257 
Education — 

—  its  essential  things,  32 

—  basis  of,  32 

—  moral,  3,  138 

—  ends  of,  238 

Educational  year,  division  of,  87, 
90 

Elementary  school,  summary  of 
present  function,  xxiv-xxvi ; 
its  place  in  a  general  scheme 
of  education,  xxviii-xxx ;  its 
relation  to  continuation 
schools,  etc.,  xxx-xxxi 

Emerson,  257 

Energy,  62,  88 

English  literature,  231 

Entrances,  38 

Environment,  8,  252 

Equipment,  23 

—  on  a  subject  basis,  105 
Esprit  de  corps,  258 
Examinations,  112-4,228-30,  30><, 

322 

—  scholarship,  157 
Excursions,  31,  94,  121 
Experiments,  158 
Expulsion,  284 
Extraction,  47 


FAIRY  QUEEN  FETE,  300 
Faith,  4 
Fatigue,  58,  237 
Fire-drill,  299 
y.  Fireguards,  50 

S.  O. 


Flags,  262 
Floors,  35 

—  oiled,  60 

—  level,  23,  57 

—  of  concrete,  39 
Flower  shows,  302 
Forderklassen  system,  187 
Friday  half-hours,  262 

—  afternoons,  263-4 
Froebel,  131 
Furniture  for  infants,  57 


GALLERIES,  23-4 
Galton's  grate,  48-9 
Games,  30-1,  133 
Gardens,  175,  362 
Geography,  78-9,  94,  105 
Glass  prisms,  41 
Glazed  bricks,  35,  37,  39 
Government,  121,  124,  252,  270 
Grade,  141 
"  Graduated,"  336 
Ground  air,  34 
Grouping  of  dull  scholars,  93 
—  its  justification,  93 
Guild  of  Courtesy,  293 


HABITS,  131,  135 
Hall,   9,    10,    12,    16,    26, 
106 
Hall,  Dr.  Stanley,  300 
Hand,  99 
Handwork,  9i 
Head  teacher,  5,   107,   110,    115, 

168,  223,  224 
Heating,  43 

—  by  open  fires,  49 

—  by  stoves,  49 

—  by  hot-water  pipes,  49 

—  by  hot-air  radiators,  49 
Hclfsschule,  334 
Herbart,  3,  6,  63 

High  schools,  335 

Higher  elementary  schools,  25, 

192,  193 
Higher  grade  schools.  191 

26 


370 

History,  78,  94,  101,  105,  110 
Homework,  109,  289 
Honour  board,  295 
Hopper  openings,  46 
Housewifery,  27,  98 
Hijgeia,  11 

IDEALS,  4 
Imagination,  257 
Immunities,  263 
Imperial  Institute,  79 
Individual,  2 

Infancy  and  childhood,  129 
Infant  schools,  137,  141,172,250 

—  classification  in,  142-3 
Infants,  4,  174 

—  definition  of,  126 
Influence,  97,  101 
Inspection,  340 
Instincts,  133,  135 
Instruction,  198 

—  oral,  93 

—  centres  for,  99,  360 

—  religious,  342,  344 

—  individual,  99 

—  "class-individual,"  164 
Interchange  of  letters,  360 

—  of  books,  pictures,  364 
Interest,  62,  89,  92,  97,  100,  102, 

108,  117,  173 


INDEX. 


J 


AMES,  PROF.,  118 

Journal  (for  P.Ts.  &  S.Ts.), 
324 


KINDERGARTEN,  144,  335 
Kinderhorte,  140 
Kinglake's  Eothen,  233 
Kirkpatrick,  130 
Knowledge,  99,  166 
—  special,  98 

LANGUAGES,  98 
Latrines,  50 
Laundry,  2%  98 
Lavatories,  39 


League  of  Mercy,  293 
Leakage,  95 
Legal  sanctions,  282 
Lessons — 

—  preparation  of,  108 

—  optional,  264 
Liberty,  119,  252,  271 
Library,  78 
Lighting,  40 

—  devices  to  improve,  41 

—  ideal,  41 

—  by  gas,  42 

—  electric,  42 

-  incandescent,  42 
Linkage,  211-4 
Local  education  authority,  some 

of  the  duties  of,  345,  366 
Log  book,  328 
Louvre  ventilator,  47-8 
Lucas,  E.  V.,  263 


MAETERLINCK,  M.,  117 
Managers,  339,  360 
"  Mannheim  System,"  187 
Manual  training,  27,  98,  186 
Masterly  inactivity,  156 
Mathematics,  105 
May  Queen  festival,  299 
Mazzini,  1 

Meals,  130,  139,  140,  290,  352-3 
Medals,  261 
Medical  inspection,  159,  303,  309, 

324,  343 
Memory,  59,  237,  333 
Method,  2,  9,  83,  162 
Monday  morning,  263-4 
Monitors,  262 
Moral  law,  257 
Miinsterberg,  Frof.,  117 
Museum,  60 
Music,  100-1,  110 


NATURAL  LAW,  257 
Nature  study,  24,  101,  362 
Needlework,  23 
"  Normal  rate,"  85 


INDEX. 


371 


Notes,  109 

"Nursery  schools,"  173-7 

Nutrition,  130 


OBSERVATION,  6,  132 
Odor  Scholasticws,  43,  14 
Office  routine,  294 
Old  Scholars'  Club,  300 
Open  sessions,  288 
Open-air  schools,  188,  309 
Organisation,  90,   107,  146,  187, 
210 

—  meaning  of,  1 

—  of  knowledge,  3 
Organised  courses,  210 


PARENTS,  95 
Parents'     and     Managers' 
aid,  284 
Parry,  E.  A.,  233 
Partitions,  18 
"  Passage  rooms,"  1.7 
Patience,  116 
"  Pavilion  schools,"  12 
"  Perfect  week,"  260 
Personality,  114,  119 
Pestalozzi,  32 
Plan  of  building,  9-16 
Play,  31,  133 

—  centres,  343 
Playground,  8,  30-2,  111,  144 

—  classes,  190 
Pleasure,  117 
Plenum  system,  45 
Practice,  4,  20 
Praise,  117,  269 
Premises,  7,  155,  175,  356 

—  for  special  purposes,  25-30 
Preparation  and  reciting  system, 

73, 110 
Private  study,  156,  222 

—  tuition,  159,  163 
Prizes,  260,  266,  303 
Problems,  158 
Progress,  86,  113,  115,  265 
Promotion,  86-92 


Promotion  in  Chicago  Schuols,  91 

—  in  Boston  Schools,  91 

—  one-subject  basis,  94 

—  to  senior  departments,  126 

—  inter-departmental,  145,  347 
Proportionate  success,  267 
Propulsion,  47 

Pubescent  period,  136 
Punctuality,  121,  259 
Punishment,  corporal,  its  ethics, 

275-282 

-  book,  284 
Punishments,  103,  118,  269-275 

—  sanctions  of,  271 

—  functions  of,  271 

—  forms  of,  273 

—  censure,  273 

—  deprivations,  274 

—  impositions,  275 

Pupil  teachers,  107,  110,  216-9, 
227,  365 


I)EADING,  SILENT,  110 
\j     Records,  114,  328,  330 
Records  of  pupil  teachers'  work 
324 

—  of  student  teachers'  work,  324 

—  aural,  327 

—  ophthalmic,  327 

—  conference,  330 

—  defectives',  328 

—  thermometric.  328 

—  weekly,  319 

—  quarterly,  320 

—  yearly,  321 

—  of  school  progress,  322 
Recreation,  308 
Reference  library,  293 
Reflectors,  41 
Regenerative  gas  lamp,  43 
Registers,  127,  306 

—  verification  of,  309,  318 

—  class,  309 

—  admission,  310 

—  summary,  317 

—  partial  exemption,  316 

—  for  special  classes,  312 


372 


INDEX. 


Registration,  121 
Regularity,  121 
Rein,  Professor,  xix-xxi,  xxv 
Reports  to  parents,  287 

form  of,  288 

Reproach,  103 
Reservation  of  places,  346 
Respect,  117,  270 
Responsibility,   78,    92,    93,    94, 

101,  114,  160 
Rest,  134 
Retardation,  89 
Reward  cards,  260,  266 
Rewards,  260-4 

—  ethics  of,  265-9 
Ribbed  glass,  41 
Roofs,  20 
Rooms — 

—  the  extra  room,  19 

—  demonstration,  20 

—  for  practical  work,  20,  23,  28 

—  for  cookery,  etc.,  26-9 

—  for  teachers,  30,  60 

—  for  storage,  60 

—  a  room  for  history,  106 
Rotation,  96 
Rousseau,  4 

Rules  (building),  7 
Ruskin,  3,  62,  116,  118,  258 


SADLER,  M.  E.,  xxi-xxii,  32 
Sanitary  arrangements,  50 
Scholarships,  157,  269,  337,  343, 

345,  348 
"  School  City,"  272,  304 
School  Journal,  301 

—  journey,  296-8,  308 

—  ladder,  262 

—  library,  291 

—  lists,  294 

—  motto,  299 

—  commnnity,  114,  252 

—  hygiene,  33-61 
Schools — 

—  small,  15,  172 

—  H.E.,  25,  192 

—  H.G.,  191 


Schools — 

—  "  central,"  195-6 

—  ungraded,  74 

—  "  special,"  99,  181 

—  infant,  100 

—  dual,  128 

—  partial  exemption,  178 

—  industrial,  179 

—  for  blind  and  deaf,  186 

—  open-air,  188 

—  contributory,  204 

—  continuation,  205 

—  commercial,  210 

—  science  and  art,  210 

—  division  of,  97 

- —  relation  to  centres,  362 

- —  secondary  function  of,  365 

Science,  98,  105 

Scientific  idling,  156 

Scotland,        nomenclature        of 

schools  in,  xxii-xxiii 
Screens,  19 
Secondary  school,  334 
Self-control,  116,  118,  121,  251 
256,  272 

—  development,  162 

—  expression,  119 

—  reliance,  89 
Skylights,  10 
Slates,  37 
Soil,  33 

"  Special    reports "     (Board    of 

Education),  xvi,  xix-xxii 
Specialisation,  95-103,  198,  216 
Specialist,  102 
Speech,  117 

Spencer,  H.,  117,  120,  126,  271 
Spinoza,  119 
Staff,  151,  176,  198 

—  minimum,  66,  152 
Staffing,  167 

—  principles  of,  151 

—  in  County  of  London,  153 

—  in  Hornsey,  153 

—  difficulties  of,  155 
Staircases,  38 
Standards,  70,  89,  225 
Standing,  57-8 


IJSiDEX. 


373 


Stepping,  20,  23 

Sunlight,  33 

Supervision,  226 

"  Supply  "  teachers,  222 

Syllabus,  77,  90,  230,  232 

Sympathy,  62,  72,  116,  224,  257 


rpABLES,  57 


Teachers,  assistant,  5,  107 
Teachers — 

—  head,  5,  107,  110, 115,  168,  223 

—  floating,  15-1 
— ■  supply,  222 

—  unattached,  223 

—  grading  of,  107 

—  on  probation,  108 

—  giving  partial  time,  151,  216 

—  appointment  of,  310,  311 

—  training  of,  315 
Teaching,227 

—  specialised,  99 

—  centres  for,  98-9 

—  departmental,  100,  226 
Technical  Institutes,  210 
Temperature,  11,  50 
Tennyson,  251 

Theory,  4,  20 
Thermometers,  50 
Thring,  xxvii,  251 
Time  Tables — 

—  ungraded  school,  81,  82 
— ■  for  defectives,  184-5 

—  for  open-air  school,  189 

-  for  H.G.  schools,  199-201 

-  for  H.E.  schools,  201-203 

—  for  "  Central "  schools,  202 

—  for  ordinary  schools,  241-248 

—  for  infant  schools,  239-241 

—  for  babies'  class,  177 


Time  Tables— 

—  departures  from,  221 
Tobin's  tubes,  43,  47,  49 
Tone,  115,  254,  270 
Tooth-brush  club,  302 
Training,  88,  322 

—  physical,  21,  136 
Twain,  Mark,  332 

UNATTACHED  TEACHERS 
223 

Ungraded  room,  103,  144 
Unification  (of  small  schools),  74 
United  States,  110 
Unity  of  purpose,  258 
University,  335 

VACATION  SCHOOLS,  140 
180,  343 
Ventilation,  9,  11,  15,  34,  43 
Visiting  teachers,  216 
Visits  of  nurses,  303 

WAGNER,  C,  116 
Wall  strip,  58 

Walls,  11,  34,  37,  44 

Waste,  95,  161,  163 

Wells,  H.  GL,  292 

Wenham  burner,  43 

Will,  21,  251 

Windows,  42,  46 

Woolwich  Arsenal,  206 

Wordsworth,  xxxii,  32 

Work- 
practical,  20 
intensive,  91,  121 
variety  of,  97,  136 
intermission  of,  108,  111 


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